Crop-livestock Integration Research Articles

Can Intensified Pasture Systems Reduce Enteric Methane Emissions from Beef Cattle in the Atlantic Forest Biome?

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of different pasture systems on beef steers’ performance, dry matter intake, enteric methane emission, carcass production, forage quality, and animal production per hectare (ha). The trial was conducted at Embrapa Southeast Livestock, São Carlos/SP, Brazil. Sixty Cachim beef steers (5/8 Charolais × 3/8 Zebu) with initial liveweights of 255 ± 7 kg were evaluated for two years under five different grazing production systems (EXT = Extensive; INT = Intensive; iCL = Integrated crop livestock; iCLF = Integrated crop livestock forest; iLF = Integrated livestock forest). The final liveweight was greater (p < 0.05) for the animals under the INT and iCL systems (484 ± 51 and 466 ± 79 kg, respectively) compared to animals in the iCLF, iLF and EXT systems (416 ± 57, 414 ± 50 and 429 ± 48 kg). The dry matter intake was significantly greater under the EXT system than it was under the iCL system (9.8 ± 2.1 and 7.5 ± 2.9 kg day−1). Regarding the emission intensity in relation to the liveweight gain per unit area (g CH4 kg LWG−1 ha−1 year−1), it differed significantly among the systems (EXT = 1.6; INT = 0.6; iCL = 0.8; ICLF = 1.1; ILF = 0.7). Similarly, the methane emission intensity differed in relation to the carcass production (kg CH4 kg−1 carcass; EXT = 0.496; INT = 0.250; iCL = 0.297; iCLF = 0.345; iLF = 0.286). Beef cattle that are raised in intensive and/or integrated pasture systems have a greater availability of forage mass and nutrients than those that are raised extensively. Pasture systems that undergo soil pH correction and fertilization, rotational grazing and/or integrated with maize cropping produce animals with greater average daily gain and final liveweights, thereby lessening the enteric methane emissions per kg of weight gain. In these systems, the efficiency in terms of the gain per land area is also greater, however, the systems that are integrated with a forest component (iLF and iCLF) are equal to that of the EXT system. The same pattern is observed in the intensity of the methane emission as for the efficiency of the animal gain per unit of land area.

Carbon estimation in an integrated crop-livestock system with imaging sensors aboard unmanned aerial platforms

Biomass and carbon estimates in integrated crop–livestock (iLP) systems remain scarce. Recently, sensors aboard an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) have been used for such estimation and can represent an efficient and low-cost method for acquiring accurate remote-sensing data. This study aimed to estimate the relationship between vegetation indices (VIs) and carbon stock in an upland rice field intercropped with Brachiaria, an exotic grass species in the savanna ecosystem of Brazil (Cerrado biome), using multispectral aerial imaging with a high cartographic scale. The research was conducted in an experimental iLP system located at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa Arroz e Feijão), Goiás State. During the data collection stage, flights were conducted with a fixed-wing UAV (eBee Plus RTK) on the same day or close to collecting biomass samples in the field. In the processing step, a correlation was performed between the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), simple ratio (SR), soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI), and modified photochemical reflectance index (MPRI) VIs and the biomass measured in the field. The results indicated that the vegetation index (VI) that used the near-infrared (NIR) band showed a stronger correlation with biomass than the VI that used only the visible band information. All VIs were significantly correlated with the estimated field biomass (P < 0.05) using Pearson's correlation. The regression models were able to predict the biomass and carbon stock in Phase 1 (3.93 Mg ha−1, 1.66 Mg ha−1, R2 = 0.748) and Phase 2 (7.53 Mg ha−1, 3.19 Mg ha−1, R2 = 0.816). From the best model selected for each phase, maps with the spatial and temporal distribution of the biomass of the iLP system were plotted, demonstrating one of the advantages of employing remote sensing techniques based on drones and multispectral imaging sensors.

Growth and productivity of Eucalyptus benthamii in integrated crop–livestock systems in southern Brazil

Growth and productivity of Eucalyptus benthamii in integrated crop–livestock systems in southern Brazil

Improving crop-livestock integration in China using numerical experiments at catchment and regional scales

Balancing water quality and food production is a global challenge due to complex nutrient cycle and previous soil accumulation. This study investigated crop-livestock integration from watershed perspective, while agricultural and environmental benefits of fertilizer and manure application were quantified through numerical experiments at two spatial scales. The optimal ratio of replacing chemical fertilizer with manure was found at the watershed scale and the spatial configuration of crop-livestock integration at large scale was suggested. Results showed that the period of basic fertilizer was more beneficial to crop yield and the effects of replacing chemical fertilizer with manure on water quality were prominent. Numerical simulation showed that specific threshold existed to balance water quality protection and agricultural production from watershed perspective. Then, by extending the threshold to regional scale, spatially explicit crop-livestock integration could be found. This study balances agriculture production and environment protection, and provides a theoretical basis for the development of crop-livestock integration.

Sheep in the Vineyard: Suitability of Different Breeds and Potential Breeding Objectives.

Simple SummaryThere is a large number of sheep breeds worldwide. Today, many of them are endangered, because there are very little market demands for the majority of breeds. The integration of sheep in viticultural systems offers a promising option to put sheep and unique breed characteristics in value. However, it is unknown which characteristics and breeds are best suited for this purpose. The lack of information leads to problems in the implementation of this so-called new integrated crop-livestock system. In our research, we addressed this challenge. We studied 26 breeds and tested their suitability for integration into common vineyards of Central Europe. Two breeds fulfill the most important requirement. Southdown and Shropshire, for the latter especially, the sheep of the shorter legged Danish type seem to be unable to stand on two legs. Their muzzle heights stay within a tolerable range without harming the foliage area of vines. Therefore, adult animals of both breeds seem suitable to take over important viticultural tasks during the growing season. A third breed, the Ouessant sheep, is suitable with some limitations.Protecting a breed of sheep is simple when there is demand for its breed traits, but new market options are often hard to find. In general, grazing sheep are able to take over some viticultural work. Here, we address a new and promising integrated crop-livestock system that involves the integration of sheep in the vineyard during the growing season. Using sheep in a vineyard entails opportunities but also risks, such as the current lack of information, specifically in relation to breed traits. In our survey, we evaluated 26 breeds for their suitability for grazing as long as possible in Central European vineyards during the growing season. First, the breed traits required were identified. Then, 94 flock book breeders were interviewed about specific breed traits. The height of a sheep’s muzzle is particularly important for assessing the suitability of a breed, as it defines the potential impact on the foliage area during the growing season. To determine the height of the muzzle, 179 flock book animals were measured. We found that the most important breeding objective for a new breed of sheep is the inability to stand on two legs. Adult animals of the breed Shropshire, and among these especially the shorter-legged Danish type, and Southdown, show a widespread inability to stand on two legs. Ouessant sheep are able to do so, yet are suitable with some limitations. Due to their extraordinarily small size, their reach is limited, as is their grazing performance. Thus, three of the 26 breeds studied here seem suitable for use in the most widespread vine training systems of Central Europe during the growing season. Targeted breeding could further improve the suitability of sheep for viticulture. Our findings could help to protect breeds and breed traits.

306 Cattle Performance and Forage Nutrients While Grazing an Integrated Crop-Livestock System Compared with Grass Pasture in the Northern Great Plains

Abstract Many integrated crop-livestock system (ICL) studies have been conducted, but few report cattle performance and forage nutrients. Here, we report one year of cattle weight gains for Angus yearling heifers and steers grazing ICL plots (ICL) or tame grass pastures (PAS) in four replicates. Five yearlings (avg. BW 390 ± 26 kg) were randomly assigned to graze each plot while provided ad libitum water and trace mineral salt. Cattle assigned to ICL grazed three crop rotations: 1) corn interseeded with soybean (C/S), 2) spring wheat interseeded with cover crop and 3) cover crop planted into spring wheat from the previous year. Yearlings in ICL were stocked first on green C/S, grazing an average of 60 days. Beginning C/S biomass was 1,827 ± 638 g m−2, yearling end BW was 465 ± 34 kg and ADG 1.28 ± 0.27 kg. Yearlings then grazed residual cover crop growth, averaging additional 42 d grazing while supplemented with a ration of baled cover crop forage, wheat straw, and corn. Ration intake averaged 15.35 ±0.6 kg animal-1 d-1. Final BW of ICL yearlings on cover crops averaged 499 ± 34 kg, ADG of 0.79 ± 0.29 kg. Yearlings assigned PAS were provided 1,911 ± 162 g m−2 at the beginning of grazing for 69 days, had final BW 443 ± 35 kg, ADG of 1.01 ± 0.22. Forage nutrient analyses are reported in Table 1, showing that individual crops are similar in ADF and TDN, but vary in crude protein content. Performance of ICL cattle exceeded that of PAS while on corn and soybean but decreased ICL performance while grazing cover crop was likely due to extreme cold weather at the time of grazing. Nutrient values reported here can be used to plan and predict cattle growth while grazing crop residues instead of pastures.

Nitrous Oxide Emissions from a Long-Term Integrated Crop–Livestock System with Two Levels of P and K Fertilization

Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions resulting from nitrogen (N) fertilization have been documented. However, no data on the effects of other nutrients, such as phosphate (P) and potassium (K), on N2O emissions in integrated crop–livestock systems are available so far. In the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 growing seasons, we measured N2O emissions from a long-term system, established in 1991 in the Cerrado biome (a tropical savanna ecoregion in Brazil), fertilized with two P and K levels. The studied no-tillage farming systems consisted of continuous crops fertilized with half of the recommended P and K rates (CC-F1), continuous crops at the recommended P and K rates (CC-F2), an integrated crop–livestock system with half of the recommended P and K rates (ICL-F1), and an integrated crop–livestock at the recommended P and K rates (ICL-F2). The cumulative N2O emissions (603 days) and soil chemical properties were analyzed as a 2 × 2 factorial design (long-term agricultural systems x fertilization). The cumulative N2O emissions from CC-F2 and ICL-F1 were 2.74 and 1.12 kg N ha−1, respectively. The yield-scaled N2O emissions from soybean were 55.5% lower from ICL-F1 than from CC-F2 in the 2015/2016 growing season. For off-season sorghum, the mean yield-scaled N2O emissions were 216 mg N2O m−2 kg−1 (in a range from 79.83 to 363.52 mg N2O m−2 kg−1, for ICL-F2 and CC-F1, respectively). The absence of pasture and the presence of soybean and sorghum promoted the highest cumulative N2O emissions, favored by the recommended rate in relation to half of the P and K. In the total evaluation period (603 days), the presence of grazed land in the years prior to this study and land fertilized with half the recommended P and K rates in an integrated crop–livestock system reduced the resulting cumulative N2O emissions by 59%. Thus, we conclude that crop–livestock systems can be beneficial in reducing P and K applications and also in mitigating N2O emissions in comparison with continuous cropping systems fertilized with the full recommended P and K rates. In view of the global fertilizer crisis, this aspect is extremely relevant for agriculture in Brazil and around the world.

Analysis of Farmer Perceptions in Adopting The Integrated Farming System: A Case Study of Oil Palm Plantation in Riau Province

Crop-livestock integration is a future agricultural system that can increase the added value of farming while and being environmentally friendly. However, it is not widely used by oil palm farmers. Oil palm integration with cattle is expected to meet the demand for oil palm organic fertilizer and utilize palm fronds as animal feed. The objective of this research is to analyse the factors that influence farmers’ decisions to implementing oil palm-cattle integration. A survey was conducted with 300 respondent who were chosen with purposive sampling with two categories: integrated farming and non-integrated farming. The logistic model was used to analyze adoption factors. The result shows that factors influencing the decision of farmers to adopt oil palm-cattle integration are the time of involvement of household head in farming, extension services, income from oil palm, and the household’s dependent ratio. Meanwhile, the factors that do not encourage farmers to adopt oil palm-cattle integration are formal education and involvement in farmer groups. The results observed several socio-economic factors that can lead to the increase of the crop-livestock integration such as farmers still requiring good extension and training. Keywords: adoption, logistic model, oil palm-cattle integration, smallholders

Methane emissions and milk yields from zebu cows under integrated systems

Integrated systems are technologies that potentially increase animal production and environmental preservation, but the effect of these systems on the efficiency and methane emissions of dairy cows is still unknown. This study aimed to compare enteric methane emissions, dry matter intake and performance of grazing dairy cows in integrated systems in the Brazilian Cerrado biome, i.e., crop-livestock integration (CLI) or crop-livestock-forest integration (CLFI). Eighteen Holstein-Zebu cows were randomly assigned to the two production systems (n = 9 for each system) based on Monbasa pasture (Megathyrsus maximus cv. Mombaça; Syn. Panicum maximum) under rotational stocking management. Herbage allowance ranged from 12 to 14% body weight, and cows were supplemented with concentrated feed according to milk yield. Herbage samples were collected by simulated grazing to determine nutritional value. Milk yield was determined weekly. Herbage intake was estimated from fecal output and indigestibility of the pasture dry matter. Fecal output was estimated by the external indicator LIPE®, and dry matter digestibility was estimated by the internal indicator NDFi. Enteric methane emissions were estimated by the SF6 tracer gas technique. Data were collected in three sampling periods to characterize the rainy season, the transition from the rainy season to the dry season and the dry season. Data were analyzed in split plots, with animals within the system as the plot and seasons as the subplot. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. The herbage crude protein content was 35.9% higher on average in the CLFI than in the CLI. In vitro dry matter digestibility was 16.7% lower in the CLI than in the CLFI in the rainy season. Milk yield and feed efficiency were similar between systems and seasons. The total dry matter intake in the rainy season was 34.6% higher in the CLFI than in the CLI. The energy loss, production and yield of methane were 29.8%, 35.0% and 31.3%, respectively, lower in the rainy season than in the other seasons. Enteric methane emissions, milk yield and feed efficiency were similar between the integrated CLI and CLFI systems in the Brazilian Cerrado region.

Opportunities and challenges for the integration of sheep and crops in the Rio de la Plata region of South America

The Rio de la Plata region (Argentina, Uruguay, and southern Brazil) is currently characterized by a mosaic of intensively managed croplands and remaining areas of livestock production on native grasslands. The production of crops and animals in this scenario is usually spatially segregated as a result of mindset and structural constraints developed over decades of agricultural specialization. However, several studies have suggested that crop-livestock integration across various spatio-temporal scales can improve land-use efficiency and ecosystem services provisioning. In this context, the long-standing tradition of Rio de la Plata region’s ranchers on sheep production summed to the easy-to-manage body size of these small ruminants make them fit into a wide range of farm sizes and integrated crop-livestock system (ICLS) designs. In addition, the large variety of crops produced in the region, including annual (e.g., soybean, maize, rice and wheat) and perennial (e.g., orchards, vineyards and woodlands), and the diversity of temperate and tropical forage species used in livestock systems, provide multiple ICLS possibilities. In this review, we explore these possibilities and highlight the opportunities and challenges for integration of crop and sheep production in the Rio de la Plata region of South America. Using mainly data from the region’s ICLS, but also other parts of the world, we show that ICLS with sheep are able to improve nutrient cycling, land-use efficiency, and systems’ resilience and profitability if sound grazing intensities are used. Finally, we build on the idea of ICLS farm design to present an interactive, hands-on methodology recently developed to support farmers’ transition from specialized systems to ICLS.

Effects of residual monensin in livestock manure on nitrogen transformation and microbial community during “crop straw feeding-substrate fermentation-mushroom cultivation” recycling system

Although crop-livestock integration recycling systems improve nitrogen (N) utilization in agroecosystems, there are limited studies regarding impacts of residual antibiotics in livestock manure on N transformation in entire recycling system. The objective was to evaluate effects of feeding monensin on N recycling during “straw feeding-substrate fermentation-mushroom cultivation”. This experiment contained 3 steps. During straw feeding, beef cattle were allocated into 2 groups and fed diets with or without monensin, respectively. During fermentation, beef cattle manure (with or without monensin) and straw (corn or wheat) and were co-fermented for 35 d to produce substrates. During cultivation, Agaricus bisporus was cultivated on 4 substrates to recycle N in the form of mushrooms. Rates of N retention during fermentation were significant higher for monensin and corn straw treatments and there was an significant interaction between straw and antibiotic on N retention rate during cultivation. However, residual monensin significantly reduced amount of recycled N during entire recycling system, due to changes in N transformation-associated enzyme activity, ammonification and denitrification plus microbial community structure and succession. Specifically, residual monensin inhibited growth of dominant bacterial phylum Bacteroidetes and fungal phylum Neocallimastigomycota, and increased bacterial phylla Actinobacteriota and Firmicutes. These alterations in functional microbes increased N retention rates but reduced mushroom yields in antibiotic treatments during cultivation. In conclusion, monensin decreased the N recycling rate in recycling system, but also reduced N losses during fermentation by inhibiting ammonification and denitrification, so, avoiding antibiotics usage is an effective strategy to improve the efficiency of recycling systems.

Effectiveness of Extension Services for Food and Nutrition Security through Integrated Crop-Livestock Farming Systems: A Case Study of Smallholder Farmers in Rarieda Sub-County, Kenya

Integrated Crop-Livestock Farming Systems (ICLFS) are globally recognized for their contributions to improving agricultural sustainability. These systems also play a big role in conservation and Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) since they reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, thus assisting in coping with the effects of climate change. This study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of extension services in achieving food and nutrition security by farmers practicing integrated crop-livestock farming systems. The data were analysed using both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. The frequency over which farmers receive their extension services indicated that the majority never received them, followed by farmers who annually received extension service. From the findings, mass media and village meetings were statistically significant in extension delivery modes. The results indicated a strong and positive correlation between the extension service provision and performance. The standardized regression coefficients revealed that for every unit increase of extension service increases performance and was statistically significant. Therefore, this study recommends a refinement and improvement of extension services to impact integrated farming system positively.

Economic modelling and simulation analysis of maize-based smallholder farming systems in the Senqu River Valley agroecological zone, Lesotho

Maize yields in the Senqu River Valley are among the lowest in Lesotho. This study aimed to compare the farm economic margins (FEM) of different maize-based smallholder farming systems (MSFSs) in the Senqu River Valley (SRV) and provide recommendations on farming systems that can be employed to improve the FEM for household income improvement. The Olympe software was used to model and simulate the FEM of the different MSFSs and SWOT–TOWS analysis was used to devise strategies to increase FEM and improve household income. The findings revealed that there was high FEM variability within and across the different MSFSs. The identified sources of variance were the cropping patterns, types of intercrops, and the number of animals raised. Poor crop and livestock management also played a role in the FEM variability, hence the poor performance of some MSFSs. The findings further indicated that MSFSs with high-value intercrops such as pumpkins had higher FEM than their monocropping counterparts. Then, again, MSFSs with both crops and livestock had the highest FEM. Therefore, identified strategies like crop diversification and livestock integration could be recommended for use by farmers, not only in this zone but also in other zones that share similar environmental conditions.

A participatory approach based on the serious game Dynamix to co-design scenarios of crop-livestock integration among farms

ContextCrop-livestock integration is a theoretical ideal for sustainable agriculture. However, the number of European crop-livestock farms has decreased due to multiple factors (e.g. agricultural policies and work constraints). Crop-livestock integration beyond the farm level (e.g. through grain-manure exchanges) is a relevant option to address these limiting factors. However, this integration within farmer groups is challenging because it requires collective redesign to address organizational issues. ObjectiveWe developed a participatory approach that includes the serious game Dynamix to support the co-design of scenarios of crop-livestock integration among farms. MethodsThe approach consists of six steps: (1) initial group meeting to define the problem; (2) farmer interviews to identify motivations and collect technical and economic farm data; (3) scenario co-design meeting using the serious game Dynamix, including a spatially explicit board game and a simulation model; (4) multicriteria evaluation of these scenarios at the individual farm and group levels using the simulation model included in Dynamix; (5) group meeting to discuss the results; and (6) monitoring of selected scenario implementation. We applied this methodology with two groups of farmers in southwestern France. Results and conclusionsIn the two groups, crop farmers wanted to diversify their cropping systems and use manure to improve soil quality. Livestock farmers were interested in local and non-GMO feed for their animals. The scenario they selected included i) inserting cereal-legume mixtures into crop rotations on crop farms to be sold to livestock farms and ii) transferring manure from livestock farms to crop farms. In this scenario, the predicted overall gross margin increased more for livestock farmers (median = 29.90 €/ha) than for crop farmers (median = 6.60 €/ha). Nitrogen balance management was improved: crop farmers decreased their use of mineral fertilizer by 2.8–17.4 kg/ha/year; livestock farmers decreased their feed inputs improving local feed self-sufficiency. However, farmers' workload and management complexity increased, with 22–54 h of additional work per farmer per year. Compared to other scenarios, trade-offs between individual farm and group benefits resulted in greater local autonomy in inputs but lower autonomy in decision-making. In the two groups, discussions improved trust, which is a key ingredient for transitioning to integration beyond the farm level. SignificanceOur study is the first to use a standardized participatory approach based on a serious game to support the complex issue of crop-livestock integration beyond the farm level. Applying the approach to a case-study revealed its strong potential. It can easily be scaled-out to other agricultural contexts.

Work organization as a barrier to crop–livestock integration practices: a case study in Guadeloupe

Crop–livestock integration exploits the synergies between cropping and livestock systems, mainly by using animal excreta as an organic crop fertilizer or using crop products as animal feed. From an environmental and economic point of view, crop–livestock integration is thought to increase system autonomy and resilience. However, little research has addressed its social impact and particularly the relationship between crop-livestock integration and work organization although, like most agroecological practices, crop-livestock integration was considered time- and labor-intensive. Here we used quantitative indicators based on the “Qualification and Evaluation of Work” method coupled with qualitative interviews with farmers to understand how implementation of crop–livestock integration practices is affected by work characteristics (perception, organization, duration, and arduousness). This framework was implemented on 14 farms selected from a typology of mixed crop–livestock systems in Guadeloupe (French West Indies), where high labor costs heighten the tension between work organization and agroecological practices. Our results show that three patterns of crop–livestock integration shaped work organization: family farms with strong crop–livestock integration (Pattern 1, n=6 farms), farms with moderate crop–livestock integration (Pattern 2, n=5 farms), and intensive productivity-driven farms (Pattern 3, n=3 farms). We also show for the first time that farmer perceptions of work, especially with animals, influences level of implementation of crop–livestock integration practices. In Pattern 1, work with livestock is done by the farmers themselves or by skilled and trusted persons from their inner circle. In Pattern 3, livestock was considered a source of on-farm income, and work with livestock, including crop–livestock integration practices, is readily delegated to employees or volunteers. Whatever the pattern, the time burden of collecting crop-products and excreta was cited as a primary barrier to further implementation. Actionable opportunities for further implementation of these patterns of crop–livestock integration practices are discussed.

PROPRIEDADES FÍSICO-HÍDRICAS DE UM ARGISSOLO SOB PLANTIO DIRETO E INTEGRAÇÃO LAVOURA-PECUÁRIA NO CERRADO

ABSTRACT Light soils are more susceptible to degradation and need to be exploited in a conservational manner, thus avoiding rapid degradation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the physical-hydraulic properties of an Ultisol under no-tillage and crop-livestock integration in the Cerrado of eastern Maranhão state, Brazil. The evaluated managements were one area under no-tillage system for fourteen years (soybean/ millet) and three areas with different histories of adoption of the crop-livestock integration (CLI) system under no-tillage (soybean/millet), with the difference being: times of entry with CLI (2, 4 and 8 years), as well as a native Cerrado area, considered a control. Soil collection was carried out in June 2018 at depths of 0.00-0.10, 0.10-0.20, 0.20-0.30 and 0.30-0.50 m. Disturbed and undisturbed samples were collected to determine the following variables: bulk density, porosity, resistance to penetration, retention curve and available water capacity. Data were subjected to the calculation of means and confidence intervals (95%). The area with a recent history of crop-livestock integration showed better density, porosity, resistance to penetration, water storage capacity and available water. No-tillage for fourteen years leads to high resistance to penetration, less porosity and low water storage capacity. The integrated system (CLI) improves the quality of the physical- hydraulic properties and the values found are similar to those observed in an area under native vegetation.

EVALUATION OF EARLY SEASON MAPPING OF INTEGRATED CROP LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS USING SENTINEL-2 DATA

Abstract. Various approaches were developed considering the need to increase agricultural productivity in cultivated areas without more deforestation, such as the Integrated Crop livestock systems (ICLS). The ICLS could be composed of annual crops followed by pastureland with the presence of cattle. Due to the high temporal dynamic of rotation between crops over the season, monitoring these areas is a big challenge. Also, agricultural organizations worldwide highlight the need for early-season maps for this kind of work. In this context, this study evaluated the potential of open data (Sentinel-2) data to map ICLS areas. The performance of two classifiers was evaluated: one of Machine Learning (random forest) and the other of Deep Learning (LSTM). Three different time windows of data were tested (Entire season, 180 days, and 120 days). Using the RF classifier, it was possible to achieve satisfactory results (Overall accuracy higher than 80%) for the early season (180 days). However, further studies are needed to explain better the lower(when compared to Random Forest) accuracy achieved by LSTM net (0.79 % for 180 days) and compare the results achieved here with results for a study area with different rates of cloud cover.

Fertilization strategies and liming in no-till integrated crop–livestock systems: effects on phosphorus and potassium use efficiency

In an integrated crop-livestock system (ICLS), system fertilization exploits the nutrient cycling imposed by animal grazing and increases the system efficiency. An increasingly popular approach to fertilization in southern Brazil is anticipating P and K requirements for soybeans into the pasture phase. This can increase the use efficiency of these nutrients in ICLS based on meat production in winter and soybean in summer. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of fertilization strategy, grazing and soil acidity correction on [...]

Assessing the freshwater fluxes related to beef cattle production: A comparison of integrated crop-livestock systems and a conventional grazing system

Beef production is one of the largest water consumers of all food production systems, but there are substantial knowledge gaps about the accounting and interpretation of its freshwater consumption. Moreover, hardly any study has assessed the freshwater fluxes related to beef cattle in integrated crop-livestock (ICL) and crop-livestock-forestry (ICLF) systems. We aimed at quantifying the freshwater fluxes related to beef cattle raised on continuous permanent Brachiaria pastures (CON) or in ICL and ICLF systems in the Brazilian Cerrado in the rainy and dry seasons. Evapotranspiration of forage grass, Eucalyptus trees in ICLF, and from drinking water troughs were calculated from meteorological data collected in the field. Forage accumulation was measured in 11 paddocks over both seasons, and forage intake, drinking water intake, and bodyweight were quantified in 12 growing Nellore heifers per system during two months per season. Freshwater fluxes related to forage production and animals were estimated. Drinking water intake and water intake via forage did not differ (P ≥ 0.073) between the systems, and were greater (P ≤ 0.035) in the rainy than the dry season. Faecal and urinary water excretions were greater in the dry than the rainy season (P ≤ 0.005). The respiratory and cutaneous water losses were greater (P < 0.001) in the rainy than the dry season. In the rainy season, evapotranspiration related to forage accumulation and freshwater consumption for raising beef cattle were greatest in CON, whereas they were greatest in ICLF in the dry season. Although ICLF appeared to be less resilient to dry periods, both integrated systems offer the potential for reduced freshwater consumption for raising beef cattle under grazing conditions, by improving the efficiency of forage use and/or decreasing evapotranspiration of forage.

Monitoring Complex Integrated Crop–Livestock Systems at Regional Scale in Brazil: A Big Earth Observation Data Approach

Due to different combinations of agriculture, livestock and forestry managed by rotation, succession and intercropping practices, integrated agriculture production systems such as integrated crop–livestock systems (iCL) constitute a very complex target and a challenge for automatic mapping of cropping practices based on remote sensing data. The overall objective of this study was to develop a classification strategy for the annual mapping of integrated Crop–Livestock systems (iCL) at a regional scale. This strategy was designed and tested in the six agro-climatic regions of Mato Grosso, the largest Brazilian soybean producer state, using MODIS satellite time-series images acquired between 2012 and 2019, ground data with heterogeneous distribution in space and time and a Random Forest classifier. The results showed that: 1. the use of unbalanced training samples with a class composition close to the real one was the right classifier training strategy; 2. the use of a single training database (pooling samples from different years and regions) to classify each region and year individually proved to be robust enough to provide similar classification accuracies in comparison to those based on the use of a database acquired for each region and for each year. The final hierarchical classification overall accuracy was 0.89 for Level 1, the cropping pattern level (single and double crops DC); 0.84 for Level 2, the DC category level (integrated system iCL soy-pasture/brachiaria, soy-cotton and soy-cereal); 0.77 for Level 3, the iCL level (iCL1 soy-pasture and iCL2 soy-pasture mixed with corn). The F-scores for DC, iCL and iCL1 cropping systems presented high accuracy (0.89, 0.85 and 0.84), while iCL2 was more difficult to classify (0.63). This approach will next be applied across the entire Brazilian soybean corridor, leading to an operational tool for monitoring the adoption of sustainable intensification practices recognized by Brazil’s Agriculture Low Carbon Plan (ABC PLAN).