Creep Stress Exponent Research Articles

Study on the creep behavior and mechanisms of Ti3AlC2 MAX phase under ion irradiation

The creep properties of structural materials under extreme irradiation are crucial for the safety and stability of nuclear facilities. This work investigates the effect of irradiation on creep behavior of Ti3AlC2 MAX phase material, focusing on irradiation fluence (dose) and temperature. Interestingly, we discover for the first time that the relationship between the creep stress exponent (n) and irradiation fluence (ɸ) in Ti3AlC2 satisfies n=A∙lnɸ+B, enhancing the understanding of irradiation's impact on the Ti3AlC2 MAX phase. Additionally, the creep strain rate (ε̇) in Ti3AlC2 correlates with irradiation temperature (T) as ε̇=E∙(e−1T)F+G. Results show that the creep stress exponent in irradiated Ti3AlC2 increases with fluence and decreases with temperature, surpassing unirradiated samples, while the strain rate follows the opposite trend. Compared to other candidate materials, Ti3AlC2 MAX phase demonstrates excellent creep resistance under irradiation. These findings provide valuable insights for developing advanced nuclear structural materials.

Tailoring strain rate sensitivity and creep behavior of CoCrNi multi-principal-element alloys by aging

While simulations predict that local chemical order in multi-principal-element alloys (MPEAs) renders anomalous dislocation behaviors and thereby varied strain rate sensitivity (SRS) and creep behaviors, the experimental demonstration of such an effect is still under exploration due to the challenges in the manipulation of local chemical order. Here we investigate SRS and creep behavior of CoCrNi MPEAs subjected to long-term aging at various temperatures using nanoindentation. Our results reveal that the SRS and creep resistance of the alloys enhance significantly with increasing aging temperatures, with the SRS notably surpassing that of elemental and solid solution counterparts. In particular, unusual magnitude of creep stress exponent is observed at room temperature and the possible mechanisms are discussed. We suggest that long-term aging could be a straightforward method to tailor the microstructural ordering and mechanical properties of MPEAs, aiming at bridging the gap between simulations and experiments.

High temperature tensile creep behavior and microstructure evolution of Ti60 alloy rolled sheet

In this work, the high temperature tensile creep test of 2 mm Ti60 alloy rolled sheet was carried out, and the creep behavior and microstructure evolution were studied. The initial microstructure of the 2 mm Ti60 alloy rolled sheet is mainly composed of primary α phase and secondary α phase, and there are many dislocations and dynamic recrystallization (DRX) inside the rolled sheet. According to Norton-Bailey law, the creep stress exponent at 600 °C is calculated to be 3.6, and creep activation energy at 200 MPa is calculated to be 286.4 kJ/mol. It implies that the creep mechanism of the rolled sheet includes dislocation slip and dislocation climb. The initial Ti60 alloy rolled sheet has the {0001}<10–10>α texture. Stretching along the RD makes the texture direction gradually change from B-type (<0001>//ND) to T-type (<0001>//TD). Whether it is the B-type texture or T-type texture, the (0001) plane of the α phase always exhibits a basal texture state parallel to the tensile stress direction, contributing a good tensile creep property of this alloy sheet.

Material volume reduction for creep testing using composite cantilevers and its application for residual life assessment

Digital image correlation (DIC) and finite element analysis (FEA) demonstrate that creep deformation in bending occurs primarily in ≈30 % of the cantilever volume near the fixed end, especially when the creep stress exponent ranges from 5 to 7. As an alternative approach to minimize the material volume required for testing, the concept of fabricating composite cantilevers is proposed and validated in this study. A composite cantilever sample consists of an “active” creeping portion (e.g., T22 boiler steel) and an additively extended “passive” non-creeping portion (e.g., IN718). The volume reduction process involved varying the length of the “active” section, a, while keeping the total length of the cantilever, L, constant. The DIC measurements conducted at 600 °C to assess the creep behavior of T22 steel revealed that analytical expressions for monolithic cantilevers could aptly predict the constitutive steady-state creep laws from the composite cantilevers if measurements are made in a region at a critical distance away from the interface. FEA indicates that accurate stress estimation enables predicting monolithic creep behavior using composite samples with “a/L” ratios of as small as 5 %. Using the developed approach, the loss of creep resistance of T11 boiler steel that was in service for ∼ 240,000 h was ascertained in high throughput fashion using a composite cantilever having only 30 vol % of the “active” material. Guidelines to minimize the volume fraction of the “active” portion in the composite cantilever and the implications of the observations for estimating the residual life of in-service high-temperature components are discussed.

Determination of uniaxial creep properties using equivalent factors by sharp indentation

The uniaxial creep properties, including the creep coefficient and stress exponent, are crucial to characterize the creep behavior of materials. Instrumented sharp indentation test (ISIT) is a non-destructive technique to characterize the uniaxial creep properties using the stress equivalent factor and strain rate equivalent factor. However, the strain hardening exponent of tested material is ignored in the contact model, leading to inaccurate estimation of uniaxial creep coefficient. Based on finite element simulations, the effects of the strain hardening exponent on equivalent factors were investigated. The relationships between the equivalent factors, the strain hardening exponent, and the yield strain were established. Indentation and uniaxial tests on Pb95Sn5 and Sn99Cu1 were conducted to validate the established equivalent factors. Then those factors were used to determine the uniaxial creep coefficient of Pb95Sn5 and Sn99Cu1 by ISIT. This work demonstrates the feasibility of measuring uniaxial creep properties of work hardened material by ISIT.

Investigations on the influence of hot rolling on the creep characteristics of additively manufactured Mg-5Ag alloy

The requirement for lightweight materials that can survive increasingly severe conditions for aerospace components has fueled the research on magnesium alloys. The current work investigates the influence of hot rolling on the creep characteristics of the Mg-5Ag alloy that is fabricated through a selective laser melting process. The creep properties of parent material (PM) and hot-rolled specimens (HRA) are determined by indentation creep tests at 250 °C, 275 °C, and 300 °C. The microstructural evolution, phase transformation kinetics, and texture evolution were deduced using instrumental analysis, including SEM, EBSD, TEM, and XRD. The specimen PM features α-Mg grains with intermetallic Mg-Ag particles along grain boundaries and random grain orientations with low-angle boundaries. However, specimen HRA has a more fraction of Mg-Ag precipitates, a dominant (0001) grain orientation, and higher peak intensity from the (002) plane. The HRA specimen also demonstrates higher apparent activation energies, attributed to microstructural changes from hot rolling. The results show that the creep resistance of the hot rolled Mg-5Ag alloy is superior to as-fabricated Mg-5Ag alloy based on the creep velocity, stress exponent, and apparent activation energy.

Asymmetry and deformation mechanism in stress relaxation of 7B50 alloy

Stress relaxation behavior, deformation mechanism, and microstructure evolution of retrogression and reaging 7B50 aluminum alloy (7B50-T7751) have been experimentally investigated with different stress directions in this study. The stress relaxation aging tests with various initial stress levels and directions were carried out at 140 ℃ for up to 16 h. Room temperature tensile tests and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observation tests were performed subsequently. The results show that the stress relaxation behavior under tension and compression exhibits significant asymmetry. The stress relaxed and stress relaxation rates under tension are relatively higher as compared to compression, as smaller and more dispersed dislocations under tensile stress reduce the threshold stress. The stress direction contribute the opposite effect on strength evolution during stress relaxation. Furthermore, the stress relaxation mechanism of the material has been analyzed based on creep stress exponent and threshold stress. In the low-stress range, dislocation climbing controls the deformation mechanism under tensile stress, while dislocation slip under compressive stress. As the stress increases, dislocation slip controls the deformation mechanism under tensile stress, while grain boundary slip under compressive stress. A physically-based stress relaxation constitutive model considering the dislocation theory and stress relaxation mechanism is established. The predicted results of the model are in good agreement with the experimental data, indicating that the model can effectively describes stress relaxation behavior under complex stress conditions.

Accelerated discovery of lead-free solder alloys with enhanced creep resistance via complementary machine learning strategy

Minor alloying is an effective method to improve the performance of lead-free solder alloys. In this study, we propose a complementary Machine Learning (ML) strategy for minor alloying to design solder alloys with enhanced creep resistance. Two ML models, leveraging compositional and knowledge-aware features, respectively, were constructed to predict the creep stress exponent of Sn–Ag–Cu (SAC)-based solder alloys. Five new solder alloys were designed and experimentally evaluated by screening the virtual sample space consisting of the critical elements, including Bi, In, and Ni, affecting the creep resistance of SAC solder alloys with the ML model. The creep resistance of the designed alloys was characterized using nanoindentation tests. Notably, the creep stress exponent of SAC387-3 wt % Bi-0.4 wt% Ni was determined to be 12.82 at room temperature, indicating a significant 33.9% decrease in creep strain rate compared to the SAC387 alloy. This study demonstrates the potential of the ML approach to design solder alloys with enhanced creep resistance.

Nanoindentation Creep Behavior of Additively Manufactured H13 Steel by Utilizing Selective Laser Melting Technology.

Nowadays, H13 hot work steel is a commonly used hot work die material in the industry; however, its creep behavior for additively manufactured H13 steel parts has not been widely investigated. This research paper examines the impact of volumetric energy density (VED), a critical parameter in additive manufacturing (AM), and the effect of post heat-treatment nitrification on the creep behavior of H13 hot work tool steel, which is constructed through selective laser melting (SLM), which is a powder bed fusion process according to ISO/ASTM 52900:2021. The study utilizes nanoindentation tests to investigate the creep response and the associated parameters such as the steady-state creep strain rate. Measurements and observations taken during the holding phase offer a valuable understanding of the behavior of the studied material. The findings of this study highlight a substantial influence of both VED and nitrification on several factors including hardness, modulus of elasticity, indentation depth, and creep displacement. Interestingly, the creep strain rate appears to be largely unaltered by these parameters. The study concludes with the observation that the creep stress exponent (n) shows a decreasing trend with an increase in VED and the application of nitrification treatment.

Role of threshold stress in creep of IN740H, a γ′-lean Ni-based superalloy

IN740H, a Ni-based superalloy comprising a low-volume fraction of γ′, is a candidate material to be used over long periods at high temperatures and stresses, as conditions prevalent in advanced ultra-supercritical (AUSC) power plants. In this study, IN740H has been tested at temperatures above 700 °C to gain mechanistic insights into its high-temperature creep behavior. The material showed classic signatures of the presence of threshold stress, marked by observation of a high apparent creep stress exponent, n, (e.g., 10 at 750 °C) and a high apparent activation energy for creep, Qc (e.g., ∼545 kJ/mol), along with a rapid increase in n at lower stresses. Accounting for the threshold stress led to a decrease in the values of n and Qc to 4 and 280 kJ/mol, respectively. Furthermore, the transmission electron microscopy and atomic scale compositional analysis reveal the pinning of dislocations at γ-γ′ interface and segregation of Co, Cr and Mo atoms in the regions of γ-γ′ interface rich in dislocations. The above combination of n and Qc and the observation of dislocation pinning at the γ-γ′ interface indicate the dislocation climb over γ′ as the dominant creep mechanism in this γ′-lean Ni-based superalloy, with the detachment of dislocations from the γ-γ′ interface, augmented by the segregation of Co, Cr and Mo, as the mechanism responsible for the realization of the threshold stress. This work, thus, provides a new impetus to research on the long-term structural integrity of γ′-lean Ni-based superalloys exposed to extreme service conditions.

High temperature nanoindentation of (U,Ce)O2 compounds

Continuing to refine our knowledge of the evolving mechanical properties of nuclear fuel over the entire fuel service cycle is necessary to understand the pellet-clad mechanical interaction that occurs in the fuel rods during the operation. A challenge with measuring the mechanical properties of irradiated fuels is their high levels of radioactivity that usually require the use of hot cells making testing time consuming and expensive. Nanoindentation based techniques can be employed on minute volumes of material to measure mechanical properties, including Young’s modulus, hardness, and creep stress exponents. Increasing the mixed oxide fuels mechanical properties database through a variety of testing techniques should enhance modelers’ abilities to predict failure mechanisms in the fuel/clad interface. A current challenge to testing mixed oxide fuels is the plutonium component in the fuel. Mixed fluorite type oxides with ceria (CeO2) can be used as a surrogate for mixed oxide fuels. In this study, (U,Ce)O2 solid solutions samples are used to develop elevated temperature nanoindentation and nanoindentation creep testing methods for use on mixed oxide fuels. Nanoindentation testing was performed on 3 separate (Ux-1,Cex)O2 compounds ranging from x equals 0.1 to 0.3 in equal steps at temperatures up to 800 °C: their Young’s modulus, hardness, and creep stress exponents were evaluated. The Young’s modulus decreases in the expected linear manner while the hardness decreases in the expected exponential manner. The nanoindentation creep experiments at 800 °C give stress exponent values, n = 4.7–6.9, that suggests dislocation motion as the deformation mechanism.

Room temperature tensile creep behavior of Mg-6Zn-0.4Mn-0.3Al-0.2Ca (wt%) alloy containing icosahedral quasicrystals

The poor creep resistance at room temperature is the critical issue limiting magnesium (Mg) alloys to be structural components in engineering fields. In this study, we designed a novel Mg-6Zn-0.4Mn-0.3Al-0.2Ca (ZMAX6000) alloy, which had superior creep properties at room temperature, and the steady creep rate of ZMAX6000 (2.52×10−9 s−1) alloy was one order of magnitude lower than that of pure Mg (5.0×10−8 s−1) and AZ31 alloy (1.5×10−8 s−1), when the creep stress is equivalent to the 0.8 yield stress (YS). The ZMAX6000 alloy featured icosahedral quasicrystal phases (I-phases) distributed at almost all triangular grain boundaries. The room temperature creep threshold stress (σ0) and stress exponent (n) for the I-phase enhanced ZMAX6000 alloy were σ0 = 209 MPa and n = 4.9, respectively. I-phases can act as barriers to grain boundary sliding, and the high-density nanoscale second phases inside the grains can impede the dislocation slip. Consequently, the ZMAX6000 alloy exhibits excellent creep properties at room temperature. The cross-slip consisting of basal < a > dislocation and prismatic < a > dislocation, as well as the pyramidal <c + a> slip are the main creep mechanisms of the ZMAX6000 alloy at room temperature.

Microstructure and nanomechanical characterization of tectonic coal based on SEM, AFM, XRD and DSI

The microstructure and mechanical properties of tectonic coal are the key to the efficient development of tectonic coal reservoir coalbed methane. The microstructure and mechanical properties of coal samples were studied and analyzed by SEM-EDS-PCAS, AFM, XRD and DSI experiments. The results show that the fractal dimension (D) of WJB, QL, and FR coal samples of pores is 2.356, 1.946, and 1.721 respectively. The fractal dimension (Ds) of PSD is 2.26, 2.25, and 2.23 respectively. The porosity (φ) values are 2.64 %, 2.76 %, and 3.98 % respectively. and porosity (Ф) values are 2.55 %, 2.67 %, and 3.16 % respectively. With the enhancement of tectonic action, the number of pores in coal increases, the fractal dimension of pores increases, and the surface morphology and pore structure become more complex. The depth and residual depth of nanoindentation increase with the increase of load. The hardness (Hx), fracture toughness (Kc) and creep stress exponent (n) of coal are negatively correlated with the aromatic interlayer spacing d002, and positively correlated with the degree of graphitization (Gd), while the elastic modulus (Ex) has no obvious relationship with it. The linear correlation between Hx and Ex is less than that between Kc and Ex. The relationship between Ex and Hx of coal samples and different peak loads is not obvious, but the Kc and n of coal samples increase with the increase of peak load. Under a certain load, the plastic energy, fracture energy and elastic energy increase with the increase of load. The tectonic coal with high metamorphic degree is prone to elastic deformation, while the coal with low coal quality is prone to plastic deformation. The research results can provide theoretical guidance for coalbed methane mining in tectonic coal reservoirs.

Ligament rotation-dominated creep in stochastic bicontinuous nanoporous metallic glass

Bicontinuous nanoporous metallic glasses (BNPMGs) are promising candidates in functional applications such as energy storage, sensors, and fuel cells. The time-dependent deformation strongly affects their long-term in-service performance. This study investigates the tensile creep behavior and its underlying deformation mechanisms of Cu50Zr50 BNPMGs through molecular dynamics simulations. The creep-recovery fatigue behavior is revealed. Our results manifest that both the transient and steady creep strengths increase with the solid fraction. The transient strength is larger for smaller ligament sizes, but the steady creep strength has very mild sensitivity to the ligament size. The generalized Kelvin model, consisting of two Kelvin units and one Maxwell unit connected in series, can accurately predict the creep and recovery curves. The rotation of individual ligaments, rather than atomic diffusion, is the dominant creep mechanism. During creep, the shear transformation zones are mainly developed on the ligament surface, and the strain in the ligament core is relatively smaller. The creep stress exponent has no definite relation with the creep mechanism and decreases with the increasing solid fraction. With the increase in the creep-recovery cycle number, the creep rate decreases, and the recovery procedure makes a milder impact on the creep response.

Enhancing the creep resistance of a cast AZ91 alloy via minor Sc addition

The influence of 0.2 wt% Sc addition on the microstructure and creep characteristics of a cast AZ91 magnesium alloy was studied by impression creep tests under the constant punch stresses ranging from 175 to 700 MPa in the temperature range 425–525 K. The findings indicated that creep rates decreased at all stress levels and temperatures after Sc addition. This was ascribed to the formation of the thermally stable Al3Sc and Mg5Al4Sc particles, reduction in the quantity of the unstable β-Mg17Al12 phase, and solid solution strengthening of Al in the Mg matrix. The creep stress exponent and activation energy values obtained from the studied alloys ranged from 5–6 and 95–117 kJ/mol, respectively. The detected drop in creep activation energy with increasing stress implies that two concurrent mechanisms of dislocation climb controlled by lattice and pipe-diffusion are competing with each other. The former one was the governing mechanism at low stress levels, while the latter one was the prevailing mechanism in the high stress regimes.

Improved creep resistance of AZ91 magnesium alloy after the micro arc oxidation process

AZ91 Mg alloy has a wide range of applications in the automotive industry, although its use is restricted to powertrain applications due to its low creep resistance. In this study, the effect of the micro arc oxidation (MAO) coating on the creep resistance of an AZ91 Mg alloy was investigated to take advantage of the coating layer with high thermal insulation properties. In this context, the MAO process was applied to AZ91 Mg alloy using a bipolar pulsed DC power supply. The creep tests were conducted at different temperatures (150–200 °C) and stresses (25–90 MPa) for the bare and coated samples, and the minimum creep rates were determined. It has been shown that the MAO coating reduces the creep rate of the bare alloy by 35%–84% depending on the temperature and the stress due to the stress-reducing effect and thermal barrier properties of the MAO coating. Based on the calculated creep activation energy and stress exponents, creep mechanisms were proposed for the bare and coated alloys. Effective activation energy was also calculated and lattice diffusion-controlled dislocation climb was determined to be the effective creep mechanism for both samples at lower stresses, while pipe diffusion-controlled dislocation climb was effective at higher stresses.

Measurement of Creep Stress Exponent of TC17 Titanium Alloy by Nanoindentation Method at Room Temperature.

The creep stress exponent is commonly employed to characterize the deformation mechanism during the steady-state creep stage, serving as an indicator of creep behavior. The creep phenomenon of high melting point metallic materials is not obvious at room temperature. However, the nanoindentation method proves suitable for investigating the creep properties of metallic materials under such conditions. Consequently, this paper places emphasis on measuring the creep stress exponent of TC17 titanium alloy at room temperature using the load preservation stage of the nanoindentation method with a constant loading rate. In order to investigate the effects of loading rate and maximum load on the experimental results, different loading rates were applied to the diamond Berkovich indenter to reach different maximum loads. The indenter was held under the maximum load for a duration of 360 s, and the relationship between the indentation strain rate and indentation stress during the holding process was used to obtain the creep stress exponent of the material at room temperature. The findings indicate that within the loading rate range of 1.25 to 15 mN/s and maximum load range of 50 to 300 mN, the influence on the experimental results is insignificant. Ultimately, the distribution range of the creep stress exponent for TC17 titanium alloy at room temperature was measured to be 8.524-8.687.

Fabrication and thermo-mechanical properties of Ag9In4 intermetallic compound

To ensure optimal working conditions for the next-generation power modules, a comprehensive understanding of the thermo-mechanical properties of the joint layer between the chip and substrate is essential. The Ag9In4 intermetallic compound is a promising candidate for the joint layer; however, related material data are not available. This study proposes a straightforward method to fabricate densified and pure Ag9In4 bulk samples. Bulk Ag9In4 with less than 0.1% porosity was fabricated by pouring molten alloy into the water-cooled mold, followed by a two-step heat treatment at 520 °C and 250 °C for 40 h each. Properties, including Young's modulus, hardness, creep behavior, and coefficient of thermal expansion, were measured from 30 °C to 250 °C. As the temperature increased, the Young's modulus of Ag9In4 decreased linearly from approximately 117.9 GPa–95.9 GPa. Correspondingly, the coefficient of thermal expansion increased linearly from 19.2 μm/m/°C to 22.69 μm/m/°C, with an average value of 20.58 μm/m/°C. Moreover, the hardness decreased from 4.1 GPa to 1.7 GPa following an exponential relationship with temperature. At 250 °C, a significant creep phenomenon was detected in Ag9In4. The creep mechanism changed from dislocation climb to dislocation diffusion, with creep stress exponents of 33.1 and 10.6 at 30 °C and 250 °C, respectively.

Understanding the influence of physical properties on the mechanical characteristics of Mg-doped GaN thin films

This study investigates the impact of Mg doping concentration in GaN thin films on their physical and mechanical properties, specifically on their conductivity transition, luminescence, hardness, Young's modulus, and creep behavior. Mg-doped GaN layers were grown on sapphire substrates using the MOCVD technique, with trimethylgallium (TMG) and bis(cyclopentadienyl) magnesium (Cp2Mg) as precursors for Ga and Mg, respectively. The TMG flow rate was set at 20 μmol/min, while the Mg flow rate was adjusted by tuning the temperature of the thermostatic bath of Cp2Mg. Three different Cp2Mg flow rates: 2, 7 and 9 μmol/min were utilized to explore their effects on the physical and mechanical properties of the grown epilayers. The results demonstrate that an increase in the Mg concentration leads to a conductivity transition from n-type to p-type, with the highest hole concentration (4.5 ± 0.2) × 1017 cm−3 and blue luminescence attained with Mg concentration equal to 2.1 × 1019 atoms/cm3. Moreover, the hardness, Young's modulus and the intensity of compressive stress increase with the Cp2Mg flow rate due to the evolution of pre-existing dislocation density and point defects incorporation. Additionally, this study evaluates the creep behavior of the Mg-doped GaN thin films. It shows that both the creep stress exponent and the maximal creep depth decrease with the increase of the Cp2Mg flow rate. This is attributed to dislocation glides and climbs governing the creep mechanism. Accordingly, this investigation highlights the importance of understanding the relationship between physical properties and mechanical characteristics of Mg-doped GaN thin films, which have potential implications for various technological applications.

On the correlation between the stress exponent for creep determined by nanoindentation and the mechanism of action enabling stress relief in indium

On the correlation between the stress exponent for creep determined by nanoindentation and the mechanism of action enabling stress relief in indium