Cratonic Areas Research Articles

Seismic images of the continental Moho of the Indian shield

Abstract Deep seismic reflection profiling has imaged different patterns of the Moho across the Indian shield with a variety of tectonic environments from Archean to Recent. The character of the Moho varies from a discrete strong event, the base of strong coherent lower crustal sub-horizontal reflections, the base of dipping lower crustal reflections into mantle, to no clear reflection boundary. The seismic reflection data suggest a laminated lower crust in several places and offsets in the Moho at others. Kinematic and dynamic modeling of wide-angle reflection data across the Mesoproterozoic South Delhi Fold Belt and the Central Indian Tectonic zone suggests a laminated lower crust for these regions. In general, the lower crust of the Indian shield is heterogeneous. A clear Moho is identified in some of the Precambrian orogenic belts and sedimentary basins along with reflective lower-crust, whereas the cratonic areas exhibit a diffused Moho. Post-collisional extensional process, such as orogenic collapse, delamination, magmatic intrusions, low-viscosity ordering and underplating might have played a role in the generation of lower crustal laminated zone and formation of a younger Moho. The termination of lower-crustal reflectivity at the Moho with a transparent upper mantle need not necessarily indicate homogeneous upper mantle.

Conifer-dominated palynofloras in the Middle Pennsylvanian strata of the De Lutte-6 borehole, The Netherlands: Implications for evolution, palaeoecology and biostratigraphy

The evolutionary history of Pennsylvanian tropical dryland/upland communities remains enigmatic. In this paper, we describe conifer-dominated palynofloras in a facies context from the early to mid-Moscovian (Middle Pennsylvanian) interval of the De Lutte-6 borehole (the Netherlands) that shed light on this issue. Our data suggest that, in the upper Bolsovian–lowermost Asturian part of the borehole succession, Florinites-producing cordaitaleans with subordinate tree-ferns, pteridosperms, calamiteans, and lycopsids, covered low-lying braidplains draining the rising Variscan Orogen, while Cordaitina/Latensina-producing cordaitaleans, walchian conifers and enigmatic pteridosperms mostly grew in hinterland regions (Assemblage I). At one relatively brief interval, a mire dominated by calamiteans and arborescent lycopsids developed within this braidplain complex (Assemblage II). In the mid-Asturian part of the borehole succession, following a switch from humid to seasonally-dry climates (indicated by paleosols), palynofloras associated with a shallow, but extensive, lake deposit imply that communities of walchian conifers, Cordaitina/Latensina-producing cordaitaleans, and engimatic pteridosperms covered low-lying drylands, but were cyclically replaced by lycopsid ‘ephemerals’ during short-term pluvial events (Assemblage III). Across tropical Pangaea, the climate-driven migration of diverse conifers from Bolsovian hinterlands to mid-Asturian basins coincides with (1) the more frequent appearance of conifer megafloral remains in the fossil record, (2) a gradual increase in the frequency of tree-ferns in clastic swamps, (3) a decline in the abundance of arborescent lycopsids in mires, and (4) a change from perhumid raised mires to humid planar mires in cratonic areas. We therefore highlight that the mid-Asturian (mid-Moscovian) interval is an under-appreciated event in the evolution of Pennsylvanian tropical vegetation, on a par with the better-known climate-driven floral changeovers that occurred in the earliest Kasimovian and Gzhelian–Asselian. Our palaeoecological findings also clarify a long-running biostratigraphic controversy by showing that conifer dominance in the De Lutte-6 borehole is completely consistent with its Bolsovian–Asturian age, and does not require the invocation of an unconformity separating an inferred Westphalian part of the succession from an inferred upper Stephanian/Permian part of the succession, as suggested by some earlier workers. This, in turn, emphases the importance of selecting isotaphonomic (isoclimatic) samples for biostratigraphic purposes.

Sr–Nd constraints and trace-elements geochemistry of selected Paleo and Mesoproterozoic mafic dikes and related intrusions from the South American Platform: Insights into their mantle sources and geodynamic implications

The study of selected mafic intrusions from cratonic areas of the South American Platform shows considerable differences among their mantle sources and geodynamic features, particularly regarding the dikes from the SW Amazonian and São Francisco Cratons. The tholeiites from the SW Amazonian Craton, which belong to the Serra da Providência Intrusive Suite (1.55 Ga), the Nova Lacerda swarm (1.44 Ga), the Colorado Complex (1.35 Ga), and the Nova Brasilândia Group (1.10 Ga), originated from a mantle source composed mainly of a N-MORB end-member, with a variable addition of slab fluids (up to 30%, according to the adopted model) from oceanic lithosphere due to episodic subductions during the Mesoproterozoic. Mafic intrusions from Nova Lacerda swarm and Colorado Complex are related to arc settings formed during the 1.47–1.35 Ga closure of the oceanic domain separating the Amazonian Craton and the Paraguá Terrane, whereas the tholeiites from the Serra da Providência Intrusive Suite and the Nova Brasilândia Group are considered intracratonic. The dike swarms of the São Francisco Craton are associated with intra-plate events. The inferred composition of the mantle source of the Lavras swarm (1.9 Ga) has a predominant E-MORB signature, and a modest contribution of up to 10% of an OIB component. The mantle composition underwent considerable changes during the Proterozoic, as indicated by the sources of the younger dikes, represented by the Diamantina (0.93 Ga) and the Salvador–Olivença swarms (0.92 Ga), to which considerable amount of slab derived fluids, probably from recycled crustal material, and OIB component were added. Changes in mantle composition and dikes intrusions could be related to the initial disruption of the Rodinia Supercontinent. The Florida (1.79 Ga) and Tandil (2.0 Ga) dikes are associated with extensional events of the Rio de La Plata Craton. In spite of the similarities between the tectonic framework of these swarms and that of Lavras (1.9 Ga), the composition of the Paleoproterozoic mantle of both cratons is very different. The parent mantle of the Florida dikes is more enriched and more heterogeneous than the others, probably due to the recycling of old crusts and OIB metasomatism. Isotopic data from the Tandil dikes also suggest an enriched original source, which could be a characteristic feature of the mantle of the Rio de La Plata Craton in Paleoproterozoic times. The Crixás–Goiás (2.49 Ga) swarm originated from a very heterogeneous mantle source, probably contaminated by OIB metasomatic fluids and crustal addition, suggesting that crustal recycling has occurred since Archean times.

Stabilization of the southern portion of the São Francisco craton, SE Brazil, through a long-lived period of potassic magmatism

Although the southern portion of the São Francisco craton in southeast Brazil encompasses one of the largest segments of Meso- to Neoarchaean crust in the South American plate, there is little understanding of the processes leading to cratonization of this region. Our combined field and U–Pb age data show that the crust experienced massive intrusions of potassic (K-rich) granitoids between 2750 and 2600Ma, and that this magmatic event marked the beginning of a fundamental change in the tectonics of the terrain, with the ensuing billion years being dominated by the deposition of a series of thick clastic and chemical sedimentary successions. Thus, deep crustal partial melting and subsequent transport and intrusion of these granites in the upper crust is a likely mechanism by which this segment of the São Francisco crust attained buoyancy to survive recycling. Regional mapping indicates that the potassic granitoids are distributed over an area of ∼25,000km2, and are related to one of the most prolific periods of potassic magmatism in the craton. LA-ICP-MS and SHRIMP U–Pb data from 16 samples of potassic granitoids together with published TIMS ages suggest a long lived period of magmatism from 2750 to 2700Ma, and a small pulse of granite crystallisation at ca. 2612Ma. The U–Pb SHRIMP and LA-ICP-MS data also indicate that the Archaean granitoids do not record evidence of U–Pb zircon resetting. Our interpretation is that partial melting and transport of granitoid melts (rich in heat producing elements) to the upper crust gave rise to a thermally stable lower crust and that this lower crustal segment (in the craton area) became sufficiently refractory and resistant to further partial melting.

Provenance variations in the Late Paleozoic accretionary complex of central Chile as indicated by detrital zircons

We present detrital zircon UPb SHRIMP age patterns for the central segment (34–42°S) of an extensive accretionary complex along coastal Chile together with ages for some relevant igneous rocks. The complex consists of a basally accreted high pressure/low temperature Western Series outboard of a frontally accreted Eastern Series that was overprinted by high temperature/low pressure metamorphism. Eleven new SHRIMP detrital zircon age patterns have been obtained for meta-turbidites from the central (34–42°S) segment of the accretionary complex, four from previously undated metamorphic complexes and associated intrusive rocks from the main Andean cordillera, and three from igneous rocks in Argentina that were considered as possible sediment source areas. There are no Mesozoic detrital zircons in the accretionary rocks. Early Paleozoic zircons are an essential component of the provenance, and Grenville-age zircons and isolated grains as old as 3Ga occur in most rocks, although much less commonly in the Western Series of the southern sector. In the northernmost sector (34–38°30′S) Proterozoic zircon grains constitute more than 50% of the detrital spectra, in contrast with less than 10% in the southern sector (39–42°S). The youngest igneous detrital zircons in both the northern Western (307Ma) and Eastern Series (345Ma) are considered to closely date sedimentation of the protoliths. Both oxygen and LuHf isotopic analyses of a selection of Permian to Neoproterozoic detrital zircon grains indicate that the respective igneous source rocks had significant crustal contributions. The results suggest that Early Paleozoic orogenic belts (Pampean and Famatinian) containing material recycled from cratonic areas of South America supplied detritus to this part of the paleo-Pacific coast. In contrast, in the southern exposures of the Western Series studied here, Permian detrital zircons (253–295Ma) dominate, indicating much younger deposition. The northern sector has scarce Early to Middle Devonian detrital zircons, prominent south of 39°S. The sedimentary protolith of the northern sector was probably deposited in a passive margin setting starved of Devonian (Achalian) detritus by a topographic barrier formed by the Precordillera, and possibly Chilenia, terranes. Devonian subduction-related metamorphic and plutonic rocks developed south of 39°S, beyond the possible southern limit of Chilenia, where sedimentation of accretionary rocks continued until Permian times.

Rapid regolith formation over volcanic bedrock and implications for landscape evolution

The ability to quantify how fast weathering profiles develop is crucial to assessing soil resource depletion and quantifying how landscapes evolve over millennia. Uranium-series isotopes can be used to determine the age of the weathering front throughout a profile and to infer estimates of regolith production rates, because the abundance of U-series isotopes in a weathering profile is a function of chemical weathering and time. This technique is applied to a weathering profile in Puerto Rico developed over a volcaniclastic bedrock. U-series isotope compositions are modelled, revealing that it takes 40–60kyr to develop an 18m-thick profile. This is used to estimate an average regolith production rate of 334±46mm/kyr. This value is higher by a factor of up to 30 when compared to production rates estimated for weathering profiles developed over granitic or shale lithologies. This quantitatively underpins the lithological control on rates of regolith production (in a neighbouring watershed but over a granitic bedrock, production rates are only ∼30–40mm/kyr). Moreover, by comparing these results to a compilation of soil erosion rates, it is clear that landscapes are controlled by the balance (or imbalance) between regolith production and erosion: soil-mantled landscapes are the result of a relative balance between production and erosion, whereas in cratonic areas, thicker weathering profiles are generated because erosion fails to match regolith production rates.

Paleozoic crustal blocks of onshore and offshore central Argentina: New pieces of the southwestern Gondwana collage and their role in the accretion of Patagonia and the evolution of Mesozoic south Atlantic sedimentary basins

The southwestern Gondwana basement block configuration in the central Argentinean offshore area was analyzed using gravimetric, magnetic and seismic data and existing onshore tectonic models. The resultant maps, the distribution of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins and Paleozoic structural features were used to validate the interpretations and to produce a new regional tectonic model. Pre-Carboniferous southwestern Gondwana of South America was interpreted as an open margin formed from east to west by the Dom Feliciano Belt, the Río de la Plata Craton, the Pampean Belt and the Pampia and Cuyania terranes. The collision of the Patagonia allochthonous terrane during the Late Paleozoic resulted in the development of the Ventania-Cape Fold Belt, which was mapped for the first time off the Argentinean coast out to 600 km from the shore. A strong change in the orientation of the Fold Belt is referred to as the Colorado Syntaxis, a mirror image of the Cape Syntaxis in South Africa. This change reflects the buttressing effect of the cratonic blocks that hamper the northward propagation of syncollisional deformation and resulted in a 180-km shift of the orogenic front. The Mesozoic basins and the basement block distribution were analyzed. The Pampean Belt, a deformed area produced by the Pampia accretion to the cratonic area, is the locus to two episutural basins, the General Levalle and Macachín basins. The Salado Basin was interpreted as an episutural basin controlled by a 2.1–2.0 Ga suture within the Rio de la Plata Craton. The Colorado Basin is composed of four segmented depocenters that reflect different emplacement controls: the location of the western Colorado Basin was controlled by the Upper Paleozoic orogen; the distributions of the central and eastern Colorado depocenters, orthogonal to the continental boundary, were also strongly influenced by the Upper Paleozoic structures and were offset by lineaments that reflect Dom Feliciano fabric; the Colorado Basin external depocenter that parallels the continental margin was also controlled by these lineaments. We interpret a time gap of some 50 Ma between the beginning of the evolution of the margin-orthogonal depocenters and the Atlantic breakup.

Deformation partitioning in the Llanos foreland basin during the Cenozoic and its correlation with mountain building in the hinterland

Abstract Previous studies have argued that deformation in foreland basins is either controlled by inherited structures, is a direct response to the advancing orogenic load or is a combination of these two factors. To provide insights into the relative importance of these processes in foreland basin development, we generated an inventory of syn-kinematic relationships for the Llanos foreland of Colombia using an extensive (∼5000 km) network of 2D seismic lines. The results of this work indicate that most of the Miocene extensional deformation in the central Llanos trends parallel to the orogen and follows the propagation of orogenesis to the east. Thus, the dominant control on deformation of the Llanos foreland basin is related to flexure during episodes of enhanced orogenic load. This observation is fundamental to understand the nature of deformation in continental interiors and cratonic areas in front of active orogens.

The crucial role of lithospheric structure in the generation and release of carbonatites: geological evidence

AbstractA recent database and world distribution map of carbonatites supports previous observations of the spatial and temporal aspects of these rocks, and provides new observations that are important for understanding their petrogenesis. These data reveal that there is an overwhelming concentration of carbonatites in Precambrian cratonic areas, most of which are elevated topographically. Thus, although approximately two-thirds of carbonatites are Phanerozoic in age, at least 88% of all dated carbonatites are located in the cratons, demonstrating a remarkable tendency for a Precambrian host. This observation suggests a link with kimberlites as diamond-bearing kimberlites are confined to the Archaean areas of cratons. The age data show that in many carbonatite-bearing provinces there has been repetition of carbonatite emplacement, with up to five episodes separated by hundreds of millions of years. In at least three provinces such activity extends from the late Archaean to relatively recent times and, because of the drift of the plates, this would seem to preclude any direct role for mantle plumes in carbonatite genesis. Magmatism is activated when lithosphere lesions are reopened in response to major changes in global plate movement patterns.

New insights into Archean granite-greenstone architecture through joint gravity and magnetic inversion

Archean tectonic evolution and metallogenic endowment in cratonic areas are intrinsically linked to lithological diversity and complex architectures. Unfortunately, reliable models of the deep structure of such areas are scarce due to poor surface exposure and limited availability of drill holes and high-resolution geophysical information. By combining multiple geophysical data sets, the strategy of cross-gradient joint geophysical inversion permits improved subsurface imaging of geological heterogeneity and structure. In this work we showcase the application of cross-gradient joint inversion of gravity and magnetic data to characterize the heterogeneity of the Leonora district in the eastern Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia. Our results harmonize both geophysical data types into integrated images of the top 15 km of the crust and successfully predict observations made by a seismic experiment and surface geological mapping.

Facies analysis and depositional environments of Permian carbonates of the Venezuelan Andes: Palaeogeographic implications for Northern Gondwana

Upper Palaeozoic strata in South America were deposited over cratonic areas and in intracratonic basins (e.g. Solimões, Amazonas, Paraná); however in many areas such as Venezuela and Colombia they are rarely exposed through dense vegetation and the nature of the terrain, so that the strata are poorly documented. However, these strata do have significant implications for the palaeogeography of the time. This article reports on a study of the Permian carbonates of the Palmarito Formation, exposed throughout the Venezuelan Andes, and discusses the succession of palaeoenvironments and the palaeogeography resulting from detailed field and lab work. Deposition took place on an extensive ramp which probably dipped gently northwards towards the open ocean. Much of the Palmarito succession shows a general transgressive trend, with a few thinner, more-regressive intervals, likely a response to glaciation–deglaciation cycles. Towards the end of the Permian in the Venezuelan Andes region, a major sea-level fall led to extensive uplift and erosion, resulting in a major disconformity between the Upper Guadalupian carbonates and overlying Jurassic red beds. The early Palmarito tidal-flat facies are noteworthy for their sub-metre-scale mud-to-sand cycles with incipient palaeosoil fabrics. Overlying mid-outer ramp carbonate facies are characterised by thin storm beds and bioclastic lenses, arranged into metre-scale coarsening-upward cycles. Succeeding shallow-marine inner-mid ramp, bioclastic grain–wacke-stones are dominated by an open-marine fauna of fusulinids, calcareous algae, crinoids, bryozoans and brachiopods. Outer-ramp facies are wacke–mud-stones with sponge spicules, radiolarians and brachiopod fragments. There are similarities between the Permian deposits of Venezuela and those recorded from Guatemala and México to the north, and from Colombia and Perú–Bolivia to the west and southwest, where carbonate systems also dominate. These facies were all part of a tropical foreland basin setting, the Mucuchachi Basin, which contrasts with the other Late Palaeozoic intracratonic basins in South America. Evidence provided here demonstrates that a seaway existed between Laurentia and Gondwana from the Early Permian through to the late Early Permian.

New Ordovician–Silurian drill cores from the Siljan impact structure in central Sweden: an integral part of the Swedish Deep Drilling Program

New drill cores from the largest known impact structure in Europe, the relict of the Siljan meteorite crater, provide new possibilities to reconstruct Early Palaeozoic marine environments and ecosystems, and to document changes in sedimentary facies, sea level and palaeoclimate in Baltoscandia. The impact crater is an important target of the project “Concentric Impact Structures in the Palaeozoic” within the framework of the “Swedish Deep Drilling Program”. Two core sections, Mora 001 and Solberga 1, have been analysed. The sedimentary successions of these core sections include strata of late Tremadocian through late Wenlock ages. Our preliminary studies show not only that several of the classical Palaeozoic units of Sweden are represented in the area, but also that other significantly different facies are preserved in the Siljan district. An erosional unconformity representing a substantial hiatus occurs between Middle Ordovician limestone and a Llandovery-Wenlock (Silurian) shale succession in the western part of the Siljan structure and suggests an extended period of uplift and erosion. This may be related to forebulge migration due to flexural loading by the Caledonian thrust sheet to the west. Thus, this part of Sweden, previously regarded as a stable cratonic area, presumably was affected by the Caledonian collision between Baltica and Laurentia.

Spatio-temporal evolution of the Satpura Mountain Belt of India: A comparison with the Capricorn Orogen of Western Australia and implication for evolution of the supercontinent Columbia

Reconstruction of the Neoproterozoic supercontinent Rodinia shows near neighbour positions of the South Indian Cratons and Western Australian Cratons. These cratonic areas are characterized by extensive Paleoproterozoic tectonism. Detailed analysis of the spatio-temporal data of the Satpura Mountains of India indicates presence of at least three episodes of Proterozoic orogeny at ∼2100–1900Ma, ∼1850Ma and ∼1650Ma, and associated basin development and closing. A subdued imprint of the Grenville orogeny (∼950Ma) is also found in rock records of this Mountain Belt. The Capricorn Orogen of Western Australia also shows three episodes of orogeny: Opthalmian–Glenburgh Orogeny (2100–1950Ma), Capricorn Orogeny (∼1800Ma) and Mangaroon Orogeny (∼1650Ma), and basin opening and closing related to these tectonic movements. These broad similarities suggest their joint evolution possibly in a near neighbour position during Paleoproterozoic Era. In view of juxtaposition of the Western Australia along the east coast of India, at the position of the Eastern Ghats, during Archean, it is suggested that the breaking of this Archean megacraton at ∼2400Ma led to northward movement of the broken components and formation of the Satpura–Capricorn Orogen (at ∼2100 and ∼1800Ma) due to the collision of cratonic blocks with the pre-existing northern cratonic nuclei of India and Western Australia. This is also the time of formation of the supercontinent Columbia. A phase of basin opening followed the ∼1800Ma event, followed by another phase of collisional event at ∼1600Ma at the site of the Satpura–Capricorn Orogen. Subsequent evolutions of the Satpura and the Capricorn Orogens differ slightly, indicating separate evolutional history.

Tectono‐sedimentary evolution of the ‘Numidian Formation’ and Lateral Facies (southern branch of the western Tethys): constraints for central‐western Mediterranean geodynamics

Terra Nova, 24, 34–41, 2012AbstractThe origin of the Numidian Formation (latest Oligocene to middle Miocene), characterized by ultra‐mature quartzose arenites with abundant well‐rounded frosted quartz grains, remains controversial. This formation, sedimented in the external domain of the Maghrebian Flysch Basin, displays three characteristic stratigraphic members with marked longitudinal (proximal–distal) and transverse (along‐chain) variations with palaeogeographical importance. The origin of the Numidian supply is related to the outward tectogenetic propagation when a forebulge evolved in the African foreland, leading to the erosion of African cratonic areas rich in quartzose arenites (Nubian Sandstone‐like). The ages of the Numidian Formation checked by Betic, Maghrebian and Southern Apennine data suggest a timing for the accretionary orogenic wedge, earlier in the Betic‐Rifian Arc (after middle Burdigalian), later in the Algerian‐Tunisian Tell (after late Burdigalian) and afterwards in Sicily and the Southern Apennines (after Langhian). A geodynamic evolutionary model for the central‐western Mediterranean is proposed.

The Late Cretaceous paleomagnetic field in North America: a South American perspective

Determining the Late Cretaceous paleomagnetic pole for North America has been difficult because of the lack of suitable rocks of that age in cratonic areas to provide the necessary data. As an alternative, different studies have appealed to paleomagnetic data from rocks in western North America. Using paleopoles from stable areas in neighboring continents, it is suggested that the available Late Cretaceous paleomagnetic record in western North America should be analyzed in terms of rigid body deformations rather than be used to represent the cratonic reference field.

Plume-induced dynamic instabilities near cratonic blocks: Implications for P–T–t paths and metallogeny

Plume head–lithosphere interactions around cratonic blocks result in thermo-mechanical disturbances that lead to heating and burial phases of crustal rocks. We present results from numerical models of plume head–cratonic blocks interactions where a free upper surface condition and realistic rheologies are accounted for. These models include distinct cratonic blocks embedded within a continental lithosphere and separated by several hundreds of kilometers. Surface topography, thermal field and effective viscosity values are tracked for 20Myr of interactions. The modeled dynamic interaction of a plume head around cratonic blocks results in two main types of instabilities, each of them resulting in a distinct P–T–t path. The “slab-like” instability, focused on cratonic edges when plume head is away from the craton center, shows a near-isothermal burial phase, while the “drip-like” instability occurring above plume head material results in a near-isobaric heating phase. Consequently, both clockwise and counterclockwise P–T–t paths can be expected around cratons, as actually observed around the Tanzanian craton and other cratonic areas. Metallogenic data from gemstone-bearing rocks in south-east Africa and data from ultrahigh temperature and ultrahigh pressure metamorphism are compatible with our model. It appears that vertical mantle dynamics around cratons may also explain thermobarometric signatures that are often attributed to horizontal tectonics.

Sea level changes and rapid crustal movements in cratonic areas in the Late Paleozoic

In the Phanerozoic, the sea depth in epeiric sedimentary basins showed considerable variations, often accompanied by regression. In periods of regression and erosion, the subaerially exposed shelf and the adjacent parts of the marine basins gave rise to numerous nonstructural (stratigraphic) hydrocarbon traps. Sea depth variations with a magnitude of up to 100–200 m and 1–3 myr long (third-order cycles) are usually attributed to the eustatic fluctuations of the sea level. To estimate their possible range, a model is proposed which describes the water depth variations as a function of eustatic fluctuations in tectonically subsiding carbonate platforms. We take into account the crustal isostatic response to the changing water load and the finite time necessary for soil and karst formation in the exposed shelf or its upper part. This model allowed analyzing data on the reference sections of the North Timan shallow-water sediments. According to the analysis, the third-order sea level changes in the Middle Carboniferous, Late Carboniferous, and Early Permian did not exceed several tens of meters. During the same period, shorter fluctuations (∼100 kyr) occurred owing to the waxing and waning of large Gondwanan ice sheets. In the first half of the Bashkirian Age (Early Pennsylvanian), regression took place in the East European and North American cratons and then shallow-water sedimentation resumed. This regression is usually attributed to a considerable sea level fall. In some other areas, slow shallow-water sedimentation continued throughout the Bashkirian. This suggests that the Bashkirian regression was due to the crustal uplifts. Short-term uplifts can be explained by ascending convective currents beneath the asthenosphere. In southern North America, they brought an active fluid into the lithosphere. This caused rapid eclogitization-related crustal subsidence in the Arkoma and Anadarko basins as well as intense lithospheric weakening and shortening in the Ouachita Fold Belt.

The thermo-chemical and physical structure beneath the North American continent from Bayesian inversion of surface-wave phase velocities

[1] We jointly invert local fundamental-mode and higher-order surface-wave phase-velocities for radial models of the thermo-chemical and anisotropic physical structure of the Earth's mantle to ∼1000 km depth beneath the North American continent. Inversion for thermo-chemical state relies on a self-consistent thermodynamic method whereby phase equilibria and physical properties (P-, S-wave velocity and density) are computed as functions of composition (in the Na2O-CaO-FeO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 model system), pressure and temperature. We employ a sampling-based strategy to solve the non-linear inverse problem relying on a Markov Chain Monte Carlo method to sample the posterior distribution in the model space. A range of models fitting the observations within uncertainties are obtained from which any statistics can be estimated. To further refine sampled models we compute geoid anomalies for a collection of these and compare with observations, exemplifying a posteriori filtering through the use of additional data. Our thermo-chemical maps reveal the tectonically stable older eastern parts of North America to be chemically depleted (high Mg#) and colder (>200°C) relative to the active younger regions (western margin and oceans). In the transition zone the thermo-chemical structure decouples from that of the upper mantle, with a relatively hot thermal anomaly appearing beneath the cratonic area that likely extends into the lower mantle. In the lower mantle no consistent large-scale thermo-chemical heterogeneities are observed, although our results do suggest distinct upper and lower mantle compositions. Concerning anisotropy structure, we find evidence for a number of distinct anisotropic layers pervading the mantle, including transition zone and upper-most lower mantle.

Neoproterozoic glacial deposits from the Araçuaí orogen, Brazil: Age, provenance and correlations with the São Francisco craton and West Congo belt

Glacigenic diamictite successions of the Macaúbas Group are widespread in the western domain of the Araçuaí orogen, east of the São Francisco craton (Brazil). Diamictites also occur on this craton and in the African counterpart of the Araçuaí orogen, the West Congo belt. Detrital zircon grains from the matrix of diamictites and sandstones from the Macaúbas Group were dated by the U–Pb SHRIMP technique. The geochronological study sets the maximum depositional age of the glacial diamictites at 900Ma, and indicates multiple sources for the Macaúbas basin with ages ranging from 900 to 2800Ma. Sm–Nd TDM model ages, determined on whole rock samples, range from 1.8Ga to 2.5Ga and get older up-section. Comparison of our data with those from the cratonic area suggest that these glacial deposits can be correlated to the Jequitaí and Carrancas diamictites in the São Francisco craton, and to the Lower Mixtite Formation of the West Congolian Group, exposed in Africa. The 900–1000Ma source is most probably represented by the Zadinian–Mayumbian volcanic rocks and related granites from the West Congo belt. However, one of the most voluminous sources, with ages in the 1.1–1.3Ga interval, has not been detected in the São Francisco-Congo craton. Possible sources for these grains could occur elsewhere in Africa, or possibly from within the Brasília Belt in western central Brazil.

The delicate balance between soil production and erosion, and its role on landscape evolution

► The uranium-series isotope composition of regolith material can be used to determine the soil residence time. ► Soil residence times up to 30 and 90 kyr are calculated for Frogs Hollow and Bisley, respectively. ► Production rates are relatively similar for granitic and shale lithologies, but much higher over volcanic parent rock. ► Soil production matches erosion in soil-mantled landscapes, demonstrating quantitatively that this type of landscape results from a balance between these two processes ► Soil production is up to two orders of magnitude slower than erosion in cultivated areas. The diversity in landscapes at the Earth’s surface is the result, amongst other things, of the balance (or imbalance) between soil production and erosion. While erosion rates are well constrained, it is only recently that we have been able to quantify rates of soil production. Uranium-series isotopes have been useful to provide such estimates independently of erosion rates. In this study, new U-series isotope are presented data from weathering profiles developed over andesitic parent rock in Puerto Rico, and granitic bedrock in southeastern Australia. The site in Australia is located on a highland plateau, neighbouring a retreating escarpment where soil production rates between 10 and 50 mm/kyr have been determined. The results show that production rates are invariant in these two regions of Australia with values between 15 and 25 mm/kyr for the new site. Andesitic soils show much faster rates, about 200 mm/kyr. Overall, soil production rates determined with U-series isotopes range between 10 and 200 mm/kyr. This is comparable to erosion rates in soil-mantled landscapes, but faster than erosion in cratonic areas and slower than in alpine regions and cultivated areas. This suggests that soil-mantled landscapes maintain soil because they can: there is a balance between production and erosion. Similarly, thick weathering profiles develop in cratonic areas because, despite slow erosion rates, soil production is still significant. Bare landscapes in Alpine regions are probably the result of the inability of soil production to catch up with fast erosion rates, although this needs testing by U-series isotope studies of these regions. Finally, the range of production rates is up to several orders of magnitude lower than erosion rates in cultivated areas, demonstrating quantitatively the fast depletion of soil resources with common agricultural practices.