Country-specific Emission Research Articles

A novel approach to rapidly tracking whole-farm methane emissions

Abstract Enteric fermentation and manure from livestock farming are major sources of methane (CH4) emissions and have a large potential for emissions reduction. However, there is a lack of effective methods for evaluating future emissions reduction efforts, especially at the farm scale. We developed a rapid analysis method to evaluate CH4 emissions from a large number of dairy cow farms in the Netherlands based on single-transect mobile van measurements of CH4 concentrations downwind of farms located between 80 and 750 m from the road. Methane emissions from 51 dairy cow farms were determined on four campaign days within a total of 7 measurement hours between November 2017 and November 2018 using an inverse Gaussian approach combined with two different wind datasets and their composite. We found a range of moderate to high correlation (R2: minimum 0.42, maximum 0.86) between the estimated CH4 emission rates for 11-16 farms on each measurement day and the number of animal units (AUs, 1 AU equals 500 kg of animal weight) across four individual days. The whole-farm CH4 emission factors (including both enteric fermentation and manure) for the four separate campaign days were estimated using the slope between the CH4 emission rates derived from the composite of two distinct wind datasets and the number of AUs. Daily emission factors for the four campaign days were estimated to be in the range of 0.18 – 0.50 kgCH4/d/AU. From the dataset, averaged over each of the four campaign days, we derived an estimate of the whole-farm CH4 emission factor, with a 95% confidence interval of 0.47 [0.13 – 0.81] kgCH4/d/AU. Our results demonstrate that CH4 emissions from a large number of dairy cow farms can be rapidly estimated, providing an independent way to evaluate country-specific emission factors and a potential way to monitor future emission reductions.

Indonesia's country-specific CO2 emission factor based on gas fuels for greenhouse gas inventory in the energy sector.

Indonesia currently calculates CO2 emissions from gas fuels using Tier 1 emission factors adopted from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). However, this method may not accurately capture the country's specific emission characteristics. To address this, this study aims to derive country-specific CO2 emission factors for gas fuels, including liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), liquefied gas for vehicles (LGV), natural gas (NG), and liquefied natural gas (LNG), by analyzing fuel samples collected nationwide. A total of 128 LPG samples from 25 regions, 5 LGV samples from 2 regions, 23 NG samples from 11 regions, and 2 LNG samples from 2 regions were analyzed. Emission factors were determined based on gas composition, carbon content, and net calorific value. The uncertainties were calculated to reflect the contributions of all key parameters in the emission factor calculation. The results show that LPG has the highest EF Tier 2, while LNG has the lowest. The average country-specific CO2 emission factors for Indonesia are 65.41 ± 0.67 tCO2/TJ for LPG, 64.89 ± 0.07 tCO2/TJ for LGV, 57.64 ± 10.18 tCO2/TJ for NG, and 57.27 ± 9.50 tCO2/TJ for LNG. We expect stakeholders to incorporate these EF Tier 2 values into greenhouse gas reporting, enabling more accurate assessments of carbon footprints, supporting evidence-based policymaking, and strengthening Indonesia's climate action efforts.

Development of National Emission Factor for Rice Production System in Malaysia: A Step Toward Achieving Sustainable Development Goals

Objective: Currently, methane (CH4) emissions from rice cultivation in Malaysia are calculated using the regional’s methane emission factor (EF) of 1.60 kg CH₄ ha⁻¹ day⁻¹, as Malaysia has not yet developed a national emission factor. The objective of this study is to generate a country-specific EF of CH4 emission from rice cultivation in Malaysian rice fields. The EF generated would then be used in future emission estimates and the country’s greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory reports to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Theoretical Framework: The establishment of a national GHG emission factor for rice cultivation in Malaysia is critical for accurate GHG inventory reporting and effective climate change mitigation. This study utilizes the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines to derive a country-specific emission factor, enhancing Malaysia’s compliance with international climate obligations and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Method: A new national EF was developed from eleven rice planting seasons in rice granary areas (IADA Pulau Pinang, IADA Barat Laut Selangor, MADA and KADA) and non-granary area (Sik, Kedah). The EF was calculated from methane emissions from the new data sets, published journals and unpublished data from MARDI. For the new data set, methane gas (CH4) was measured using a static chamber method (Minamikawa et al., 2015). Sampling of GHG from the gas chamber is carried out in the field every 2 weeks and gas was analysed by a GC System Agilent 7890A gas chromatography. The daily methane flux and methane emission follow the methods by Habib et al. (2007), Fauzi et al. (2023) and the Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories for Cropland (IPCC, 2006a). Results and Discussion: The national EF calculated from CH4 gas emissions over eleven rice planting seasons in Malaysia between 2012-2024 was 1.80 kg CH4 ha-1 day-1, which is higher than the current regional EF used (1.60 kg CH4 ha-1 day-1). However, the value is within the range of the default value of 1.30 kg CH4 ha-1 day-1 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2006 and 2.00 kg CH4 ha-1 day-1 (IPCC, 1996). Research Implications: The use of this new EF resulted in 12.49% increase in the national GHG inventory from the rice cultivation sub-sector as compared to using the current regional EF. This initiative is part of a comprehensive plan to enhance and strengthen GHG inventory reporting for Malaysia's agriculture sector, aiming to meet IPCC requirements and progress to Tier 2 status.

PSLBII-6 Measuring greenhouse gas emissions from biogas facility as manure treatment and comparing with 2006 IPCC guideline calculation

Abstract To achieve global net-zero emission goals by 2050, Korea government announced 2050 carbon neutral scenarios. Substitution of fossil fuel power plants to renewable energy plants is the main strategic long-term vision. It included increasing the number of a biogas facility to retrieve methane (CH₄) for energy sources from manure. As increasing the biogas facility with using manure, it is important to quantify and monitor the greenhouse gas (GHG) such as CH₄ and nitrous oxide (N₂O). The objective of this research was to measure the GHG emissions from the biogas facility as the baseline to construct the country-specific emission factors, and to compare the emissions between site measured data and 2006 IPCC guideline (2006 IPCC GL). This facility was constituted with feedstock, anaerobic digestion, biogas storage, and liquid fertilizer storage. The facility treats 70 tons of swine manure from 20,000 pigs and 30 ton of food waste per day and generates 3,000 m3 /d of biogas. All gases were vented by negative pressure from the odor treatment tower, except the generator and its blowers. Quantification of the total GHG emissions from the biogas facility was conducted for 24 h every 2 wk, from July 2022 to October 2023, using CH₄/N2O Analyzer (Los Gatos Research, San Jose, CA). The total emissions of CH₄ and N2O were 12,545 ± 2,297 kgCH4/yr and 442 ± 1,123 kg N2O/yr. To compare total GHG emissions from the facility, it was changed by carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent. The results showed that when the system of biogas facility operated normally, it can reduce the total GHG emissions by up to 60% compared with 2006 IPCC GL calculation. However, if the system does not circulate properly, it can result in 18 times greater emissions due to N2O, leading to significant increase in GHG emissions. To reduce GHG from biogas facilities, it is crucial to ensure continuous operation of organic matter in and out, and increase the amount of sufficient aeration in liquid fertilizer storage.

Double-Stage Anaerobic Digestion for Biohydrogen Production: A Strategy for Organic Waste Diversion and Emission Reduction in a South African Municipality

Landfilling of organic waste poses a significant environmental threat, heavily contributing to climate change. The diversion of waste is imperative, but pathways to implementing alternative waste management strategies are needed. Double-stage anaerobic digestion has been identified as a potential technique that can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and diminish the amount of waste landfilled. Still, further research is needed before its implementation at the municipal level. This paper explored the potential insertion of double-stage anaerobic digestion into the portfolio of alternative treatment methods using the case study of the eThekwini Municipality in Durban, South Africa, by proposing a source-separation waste management scheme and forecasting the organic waste generation for a 24-year timeframe until 2050. The WROSE model has been identified as the ideal tool for the analysis. A new scenario, including double-stage anaerobic digestion, has been introduced in WROSE after developing a country-specific emission factor. The technology has been assessed against similar techniques, namely anaerobic digestion and composting, according to the environmental indicators included in WROSE. Compared with the business-as-usual scenario and three other alternatives, the new scenario proved to be the second-most effective (−282% versus business-as-usual) after anaerobic digestion (−291%) in reducing climate-altering emissions, achieving analogous waste diversion rate (10.09%), landfill airspace (1,653,705 m3), and monetary savings (3.8 billion Rand) compared to composting and anaerobic digestion.

Analysis of Passenger Car Tailpipe Emissions in Different World Regions through 2050

This study presents a carbon dioxide (CO2), exhaust particulate matter (PM2.5) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) tailpipe emission analysis of passenger cars in nine countries, representing different world regions up to 2050 using a bottom-up calculation method. A diffusion model is used to analyze the development of different drivetrain/fuel technologies in the respective vehicle stocks of each world region. Drivetrain- and country-specific emission factors are weighted according to the modelled stock compositions. The obtained stock fleets’ average emission factors are multiplied by the transport demand in order to obtain the total passenger car emissions. Our findings reveal global passenger car CO2, NOx and PM2.5 emissions decrease by approximately 45%, 63% and 54%, respectively, between 2015 and 2050. Gasoline will remain a significant energy carrier in 2050 with about a 25% stock share. However, electric vehicles will be in the lead, especially after 2040. Additionally, rising transport demand offsets emission reductions in some regions. This study aims to provide global and regional insights into future emissions trends and their driving factors.

An experimental study on aging effects of fuel-cut events including sound optimized torque reduction on modern three-way catalysts

Continuously increasing country-specific emission standards for passenger vehicles demand additional development steps in complex exhaust gas aftertreatment systems for a more effective reduction of harmful gases. The efficiency of the aftertreatment system declines over its lifecycle due to specific load profiles and other boundary conditions, resulting in increasing emissions over vehicle mileage. As a result, the durability of the exhaust system becomes more important. Fuel cut is an intended, temporary interruption of the fuel supply of modern combustion engines of passenger cars to reduce fuel consumption and emissions. During this fuel reduction event, unconsumed oxygen of rich and cool fresh air is introduced to the combustion chamber and to the exhaust system. Besides a catalyst cool down, oxidation effects are provoked by enhanced oxygen reactions processes within the catalyst’s washcoat and surface layers. In this publication, specific aging cycles with a variation of fuel-cut programs were examined on their effects on a modified modern eight-cylinder turbo-charged engine, especially on their oxidation effects correlating to catalyst aging. Light-off curves and conversion heat maps were used to evaluate possible damaging impacts of fuel-cut events on the aging behavior of the catalyst systems. Results indicate that higher frequency of fuel-cut events results in a reduced catalyst conversion efficiency, whereas thermal sintering might be reduced due to overall lower temperature load. Temporary oxidation processes on catalyst’s surfaces occur only in a short timespan after changing the air fuel ratio to lean, resulting in a weaker thermal sintering during longer fuel-cut events. Sound optimized torque reduction functions, used in sports cars for a better drivability and powertrain response, exhibit a stronger aging influence due to additional thermal shock effects on the catalysts front face, as demonstrated via optical infrared sensor technology during catalyst aging cycles on the modified engine bench setup. A theoretical calculation of aging processes as a combination of thermal sintering by Arrhenius equation as well as oxidation process is discussed to describe an aging classification induced via oxidation processes. Additional physisorption measurements of different catalyst probes support the results which indicate the direction of future experimental approaches.

Assessing the Additional Benefits of Thailand’s Approaches to Reduce Motor Vehicle Emissions

Air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs) represent major challenges in our era, contributing to climate change and global health issues. These problems arise from a variety of well-known sources, including motor vehicles. Almost all nations, Thailand included, have formulated and implemented policies to curb greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in line with the requirements and commitments of the Paris Agreement. The evaluation of specific air pollutants and GHG emissions originating from road vehicles utilises the Thailand database, referencing the year 2019. Data intersections from 2019 to 2022 are grounded in actual data collected from relevant departments in Thailand, while projections for 2023–2030 are forecasted based on the baseline year. The secondary database used in the International Vehicle Emission model is adjusted according to real-world driving data to accurately reflect country-specific emission factors. Dynamic emission factors for specific air pollutants and GHGs are evaluated and integrated with the average Vehicle Kilometres Travelled (VKT) for each vehicle category. The Business-As-Usual (BAU) scenario is then examined, based on existing policies aimed at reducing air pollutants and GHG emissions in Thailand’s transport sector. These policies include strategies for the adoption of electric vehicles and the promotion of public transport to reduce VKT. Under the BAU scenario, the overall number of road vehicles in Thailand, including passenger cars, motorcycles, pickups, vans, trucks, and buses, is expected to increase by approximately 6.58% by 2030, leading to a rise in specific air pollutants and GHG emissions compared to the 2019 baseline. However, by adhering to Thailand’s strategies and transitioning to new electric passenger cars and buses, greenhouse gas emissions and specific air pollutants from the road transport sector will be significantly reduced.

External costs of electricity generation in 27 European countries from 2010-2030: Pathway toward sustainability or business as usual?

Electricity generation in Europe is undergoing a fundamental change. The aim is to increase sustainability by reducing emissions. Each country has a different electricity mix, and there is no established method for measuring environmental impacts of electricity production with a single monetary indicator, in a uniform manner, and with country-specific data. To address this gap, a model that measures the costs of 19 environmental externalities (usually, types of emissions) has been developed. Using country-specific technologies, electricity mixes, and external cost rates, the development of external costs of generating electricity in 27 European countries between 2010 and 2030 is assessed and analyzed. The simulation results show that the external costs vary heavily between 2.1 and 22.4 euro cents per kWh in this period. Despite the initiated transformation of the energy systems in many EU countries, external costs per kWh are decreasing in only eight of them. This fact underlines the need for a drastic change in national energy strategies. Overall, the results show that more far-reaching policy measures are needed in order to significantly reduce the external costs of the energy sector in Europe. The article raises the level of granularity of research on the external costs of electricity in Europe by combining extensive country-specific emission data and country-specific external cost rates.

Ṇitrogen footprint of Korean beef cattle farms: Scenarios toward more sustainable production

AbstractNitrogen (N) lost during beef cattle production accompanies various environmental risks and has become a rising concern among agricultural stakeholders. The objective of this study was to quantify the N footprint of producing Hanwoo beef cattle, which is a Korean indigenous breed of cattle, in Korea at the farm gate through a life cycle assessment approach. Field surveys were conducted on 106 farms across 9 provinces to identify regional distinctions in farming systems and evaluate total N losses from beef production. N losses were calculated using emission factors from the refined IPCC guidelines, which were then expressed as N footprint (g N/kg of live body weight (LBW)). Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses were deployed to evaluate the precision of the results and identify factors that contributed to the output. The N footprint averaged 132.7(± 61.8) g N/kg LBW and varied between provinces according to animal categories, manure management systems, land use and fertilizer application rates. Volatilization was the highest contributing factor, followed by leaching and denitrification, each representing 68.5, 21.4, and 10.1 percent of the N footprint, respectively. The uncertainty of the result was found to be 46.6 percent and was highly associated with emission factor uncertainties. We devised five mitigation scenarios that are cost effective and do not penalize productivity and evaluated their capacity for reducing N footprint: (i) dietary modifications to decrease animal N excretion rate; (ii) microorganism additives to reduce volatilization from housing; (iii) manure storages recycling manure within the farm to replace synthetic fertilizers; (iv) distributing biochar to the field after fertilizer application to curtail losses from crop production; (v) combination of i, ii, iii, and iv. Combining these scenarios demonstrated the potential to reduce 12.1 percent of the total N footprint. The extents of mitigation scenarios varied across provinces (ranging from 5.2 to 21.7 percent) and were shown to be contingent on feeding practices and type of crop cultivated. Overall, our study provides a national metric that can be utilized to communicate the environmental impacts of Korean beef production. The analyses indicate that more precise results could be achieved with future endeavors towards developing country-specific emission factors. The mitigation potentials of the presented scenarios propose possibilities for feasible and sustainable beef production in Korea.

Health effects of carbonaceous PM2.5 compounds from residential fuel combustion and road transport in Europe

Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. In Europe, residential fuel combustion and road transport emissions contribute significantly to PM2.5. Toxicological studies indicate that PM2.5 from these sources is relatively more hazardous, owing to its high content of black and organic carbon. Here, we study the contribution of the emissions from these sectors to long-term exposure and excess mortality in Europe. We quantified the impact of anthropogenic carbonaceous aerosols on excess mortality and performed a sensitivity analysis assuming that they are twice as toxic as inorganic particles. We find that total PM2.5 from residential combustion leads to 72,000 (95% confidence interval: 48,000–99,000) excess deaths per year, with about 40% attributed to carbonaceous aerosols. Similarly, road transport leads to about 35,000 (CI 23,000–47,000) excess deaths per year, with 6000 (CI 4000–9000) due to carbonaceous particles. Assuming that carbonaceous aerosols are twice as toxic as other PM2.5 components, they contribute 80% and 37%, respectively, to residential fuel combustion and road transport-related deaths. We uncover robust national variations in the contribution of each sector to excess mortality and emphasize the importance of country-specific emission reduction policies based on national characteristics and sectoral shares.

Country-specific emission information in relation to paddy residue burnt in Sri Lanka

Country-specific emission information in relation to paddy residue burnt in Sri Lanka

Emission inventory of inorganic trace gases from solid residential fuels over the National Capital Territory of India.

In developing nations, solid residential fuels are the major sources of primary energy for various domestic activities. To date, the emission inventory of inorganic trace gases over National Capital Territory (NCT) was prepared using either default or country-specific emission factors. In this paper, we report (for the first time) the spatial variation of emission factors (EFs) of inorganic trace gases (SO2, NO, NO2, CO, CO2, and CH4) from the residential fuels used in slums and rural areas of NCT determined using dilution chamber in the laboratory. 147 residential fuel samples, including fuelwood, dung cake, crop residues, coal, etc., were collected at 149 NCT locations out of 675 slum clusters and 146 rural villages. The range of EF(s) of SO2 (0.02 ± 0.01 to 0.04 ± 0.01gkg-1), CH4 (0.10 to 0.34gkg-1), NO2 (0.01 to 0.02gkg-1) is lower than the CO (3.55 ± 1.72 to 6.07 ± 1.53gkg-1) and CO2 (0 to 129.45 ± 46.94gkg-1). The north and north west districts of NCT are emission hotspots for CH4, NO, and NO2 emissions, whereas, the southern and northern areas of NCT are for CO2. These citywide emission inventories (0.05° × 0.05°) of inorganic trace gases are prepared using laboratory-determined EFs and available consumption data determined by recent survey information. Among solid residential fuels, fuel wood, and dung cake are two major contributors to inorganic trace gases in NCT.

PSXI-28 Nitrogen Footprint Assessment of Korean Native Beef Cattle Farms: Uncertainty Analysis and Mitigation Scenarios

Abstract Nitrogen (N) lost during beef cattle production accompanies various environmental impacts and has become an increasing concern among agricultural stakeholders. The objective of this study was to quantify the N footprint (NF) of Hanwoo beef cattle production in Korea at the farm gate through a life cycle assessment methodology. Field surveys were conducted on 106 farms across nine provinces to evaluate the NF of Hanwoo beef farms. N losses were calculated using emission factors using the refined Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guideline and expressed as NF [g N lost/kg of live body weight (LBW)]. Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses were deployed to evaluate the precision of the results and to quantify the variability of the input data. The NF was averaged 132.8 (±61.9) g N/kg LBW. Volatilization was the greatest contributing factor, followed by leaching and denitrification, each representing 68.4, 21.4, and 10.1 percent of the NF, respectively. The uncertainty of the output data was found to be 46.6 percent and was highly associated with emission factors uncertainties. We simulated four feasible mitigation scenarios that are cost effective and do not penalize productivity, and evaluated their capacity for reducing NF of meat: dietary modifications to decrease animal N excretion rates by adjusting the CP and rumen undegradable protein content for steers and fattening cows (A), microorganism additives to reduce volatilization from housing and manure storages through processing excess ammonium to synthesize microbial protein (B), using manure as land fertilizer instead of synthetic fertilizers to decrease denitrification from rice cultivation, and leaching and volatilization from all field types(C), and distributing straw-derived biochar (10 to 20 ton/ha) to the field after fertilizer application to reduce losses from crop production (D).Combining these scenarios demonstrated the potential to reduce NF by 12.3 percent. Overall, our study provides a national metric that can be used to communicate the N uses impact of Korean beef production. The analyses indicate that more precise results could be achieved with future endeavors toward developing country-specific emission factors. Integrating all four scenarios was shown to be the most effective approach to reducing the NF of beef production.

Particle lung deposited surface area (LDSAal) size distributions in different urban environments and geographical regions: Towards understanding of the PM2.5 dose–response

Recent studies indicate that monitoring only fine particulate matter (PM2.5) may not be enough to understand and tackle the health risk caused by particulate pollution. Health effects per unit PM2.5 seem to increase in countries with low PM2.5, but also near local pollution sources (e.g., traffic) within cities. The aim of this study is to understand the differences in the characteristics of lung-depositing particles in different geographical regions and urban environments. Particle lung deposited surface area (LDSAal) concentrations and size distributions, along with PM2.5, were compared with ambient measurement data from Finland, Germany, Czechia, Chile, and India, covering traffic sites, residential areas, airports, shipping, and industrial sites. In Finland (low PM2.5), LDSAal size distributions depended significantly on the urban environment and were mainly attributable to ultrafine particles (<100 nm). In Central Europe (moderate PM2.5), LDSAal was also dependent on the urban environment, but furthermore heavily influenced by the regional aerosol. In Chile and India (high PM2.5), LDSAal was mostly contributed by the regional aerosol despite that the measurements were done at busy traffic sites. The results indicate that the characteristics of lung-depositing particles vary significantly both within cities and between geographical regions. In addition, ratio between LDSAal and PM2.5 depended notably on the environment and the country, suggesting that LDSAal exposure per unit PM2.5 may be multiple times higher in areas having low PM2.5 compared to areas with continuously high PM2.5. These findings may partly explain why PM2.5 seems more toxic near local pollution sources and in areas with low PM2.5. Furthermore, performance of a typical sensor based LDSAal measurement is discussed and a new LDSAal2.5 notation indicating deposition region and particle size range is introduced. Overall, the study emphasizes the need for country-specific emission mitigation strategies, and the potential of LDSAal concentration as a health-relevant pollution metric.

Allocation of carbon dioxide emissions to the by-products of combined heat and power plants: A methodological guidance

Cogeneration has higher efficiency than separate heat and power generation. Since both are generated in a single process, it is necessary to allocate the emissions to by-products for comparing their environmental performance. Numerous methods exist resulting in very different allocations. There is no consensus regarding the method choice. The main objective of this article is the development and implementation of an evaluation scheme allowing the choice of an appropriate method for specific applications. This scheme consists of nine criteria in the categories “Applicability”, “Environmental relevance”, and “Systematic approach” allowing a rating. The Finnish method performs best for a standard use case resulting in emission factors of 322 g CO2 / kWhel and 192 g CO2 / kWhth. Both are associated with less emissions per unit then the electricity and district heating mix of Germany in 2020 that were 375 g CO2 / kWhel and 270 g CO2 / kWhth. Therefore, cogeneration electricity and heat could contribute to climate protection in the short- to mid-term. The implementation of two sensitivity analyses shows that the location and country-specific emission factors can have a great influence on the results and the contribution to climate protection. Depending on use case and individual importance of certain criteria the Energy, the Exergy or the Greenhouse Gas method can be preferable. Each scored with one point less than the Finnish method. In contrast to existing publications, this study supports decision-makers in transparently selecting an appropriate allocation method when assessing the products of cogeneration by considering different criteria.

바이오중유 발전소의 Non-CO2 배출계수 개발 및 비교

This study studied a specific power plant that changed fuels from B-C oil to bio-fuel oil. Carbon dioxide emitted by bio-fuel oil combustion is not included in total greenhouse gas emissions due to the application of the carbon neutral concept and is to be reported separately. Therefore, total greenhouse gas emissions for bio-fuel oil are calculated based on non-CO₂ emissions. To reliably calculate emissions, it is necessary to develop a country-specific emission factor that reflects national characteristics.BR Currently, there is no country-specific emission factor for bio-fuel oil. This study identified and analyzed non-CO₂ emission factors for bio-fuel oil. In total, non-CO₂ emission factors of this study are observed 0.671 kgCH4/TJ and 0.171 kgN₂O/TJ.

Measurement of greenhouse gas emissions from a dairy cattle barn in Korea.

Korea is currently developing country-specific emission factors to support the 2050 zero-carbon campaign. Dairy cattle represent one of the largest livestock industries in Korea, and the industry is estimated to continue increasing because of an increase in milk demand. However, country-specific emission factors for dairy cattle are currently only available for calculating methane (CH4) emissions from enteric fermentation. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate CH4 and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes from sawdust-bedded barn in dairy cow and steer, as well as dairy cattle manure composting lots. The greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes were quantified using the open-chamber method and gas chromatography. CH4 fluxes from steer, dairy cow, and manure compost were 27.88 ± 5.84, 36.12 ± 10.85, and 259.44 ± 61.78 µg/head/s, respectively. N2O fluxes from steer, dairy cow, and manure compost were 14.04 ± 1.27, 4.11 ± 1.57, and 3.97 ± 1.08 µg/head/s, respectively. The result of this study can be used to construct country-specific data for GHG emissions from manure management. Thus, the application of mitigation strategies can be prioritized based on the GHG profile and targeted source.

우리나라 산림지부문 입목바이오매스 탄소저장량의 불확도 평가

The Paris Agreement recommends its member parties to enhance transparency in Greenhouse Gas (GHG) inventory by sector. IPCC guidelines provide recommendations for reducing uncertainties of GHG emissions and removals for the accurate assessment. Thus, this study aimed to assess the uncertainties of estimated carbon stocks for living biomass in the forestry sector. Living biomass is an essential indicator for monitoring GHG removals in the LULUCF sector. This study made a comparative assessment of the uncertainty by applying error propagation methods (simple multiplication, addition and subtraction) and the Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) suggested in the IPCC guidelines. The findings showed that the overall uncertainty for the simple multiplication in the error propagation was found to be as high as ±28.0% due to higher uncertainties of country-specific emission factors. In contrast, the overall uncertainty was as low as ±3.6% for the addition and subtraction considering the sensitiveness of activity data and emission factors as explanatory variables, while that for the MCS was at around ±6.0%. Despite the slightly higher uncertainty for MCS compared with addition and subtraction, it is reasonable to apply uncertainty assessment using MCS considering the international reliability and comparability. Additionally, since living biomass causes various error sources including measurement error and volume equations by tree species, there is a need for research to assessing different error sources for uncertainty.

On the Interpretation and Measurement of Technology-Adjusted Emissions Embodied in Trade

We propose a new method for standardizing the production technology at the world average level and derive interpretations for the resulting carbon emission concepts. The technology-adjusted emission balance measures net weak carbon leakage defined as the difference between the foreign emissions avoided by exports and the foreign emissions generated by imports. We use global multi-regional input–output tables to document the variable’s spatio-temporal variation for 49 economies between 1995 and 2015. There is a positive cross-country correlation between net leakage and per-capita income. Changes in net leakage are generally small and do not account for country-specific emission trends, that is, domestic emission decreases were not offset by foreign emission increases.