Cost Of Recycling Research Articles

Peculiarities of the foreign manufactures cars recycling in Russia

The main elements of the vehicle recycling system in Russia are considered on the example of passenger cars. The main problems of decommissioned vehicles recycling in the context of a cyclical economy development are described. The article presents a critique of the current state recycling policy. The strategy for the development of recycling projects that can be implemented both by the state and by private companies entrusted by the state is suggests. The article presents a structural analysis of imported cars, foreign brands of Russian production and domestic cars from the total sales for 2017 and 2018. Data on sales volumes of the best-selling car models in Russia are presented. The main advantages of the production of foreign cars in Russia in terms of the impact on the emerging Russian recycling system for decommissioned vehicles are identified. Recommendations on implementation of projects related to recycling and calculation of recycling fees are offered. The study developed two ways to use recycled material from car recycling, which can recoup some of the costs of recycling, increase the percentage of import substitution of components for the automotive industry and create a closed-cycle economy.

Crashworthiness of poplar wood veneer tubes

This work studies the potential of using wooden tubes for crash applications. The tubes were made from 1 mm thick “I214” poplar veneers, according to different stacking sequences. Four configurations were characterized under static crushing (5 mm/min) and the one that performed best ([90/04/90]) was chosen to undergo dynamic tests under a drop weight tower (5.7 m/s). This configuration presents significant energy absorption performance in static (31.6 J / g) and in dynamic (28.5 J / g) crushing for a material that is natural, ecological (low carbon footprint), recyclable, and low cost in comparison with other materials such as composite materials. As with composites, the position, number, and orientation of the plies directly affect the amount of energy absorbed. The use of poplar, one of the weakest woods in mechanical terms, shows the possibilities of wood for this use.

Detailed Analysis of the Composition of Selected Plastic Packaging Waste Products and Its Implications for Mechanical and Thermochemical Recycling.

Plastic packaging typically consists of a mixture of polymers and contains a whole range of components, such as paper, organic residue, halogens, and metals, which pose problems during recycling. Nevertheless, until today, limited detailed data are available on the full polymer composition of plastic packaging waste taking into account the separable packaging parts present in a certain waste stream, nor on their quantitative levels of (elemental) impurities. This paper therefore presents an unprecedented in-depth analysis of the polymer and elemental composition, including C, H, N, S, O, metals, and halogens, of commonly generated plastic packaging waste streams in European sorting facilities. Various analytical techniques are applied, including Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarized optical microscopy, ion chromatography, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), on more than 100 different plastic packaging products, which are all separated into their different packaging subcomponents (e.g., a bottle into the bottle itself, the cap, and the label). Our results show that certain waste streams consist of mixtures of up to nine different polymers and contain various elements of the periodic table, in particular metals such as Ca, Al, Na, Zn, and Fe and halogens like Cl and F, occurring in concentrations between 1 and 3000 ppm. As discussed in the paper, both polymer and elemental impurities impede in many cases closed-loop recycling and require advanced pretreatment steps, increasing the overall recycling cost.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESOURCE APPROACH IN WASTE MANAGEMENT ON THE TERRITORY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Justification of the rational management of solid municipal waste is an urgent problem for our country. This situation is due to the presence of a large amount of waste generated annually, which, as a rule, is stored uncontrolled in landfills, dumps and is less recyclable. In this regard, the study analyzes the current state of legislation in the field of solid municipal waste management in the Russian Federation, as well as the experience of waste management abroad and highlights its main features. The possibility of using the resource approach is estimated by the example of calculating the cost of waste disposal and recycling, energy utilization technologies. As a result, the propused structure of such on approach which is new and promising for the development of management processes and implementation of recycling need generated by municipal waste. Besides, as a practical management tool, the article offers indicators that should be used as a basis for a methodological approach to calculating the resource potential of solid municipal waste and calculating the tariff for reclamation of disturbed land, which will increase the socio-economic efficiency of waste management.

Waste material recycling and exchanging decisions for industrial symbiosis network optimization

The industrial symbiosis initiative, which aims to reuse waste resources, is considered as a potential solution for sustainable manufacturing. Compared with much literature for the industrial symbiosis optimization about waste energy and wastewater, this paper proposes an industrial symbiosis optimization model based on the waste material recycling and exchanging network. By-products from the production process are considered the main components of waste material flows. A Mixed-integer programming method is employed to formulate the optimization model. In response to the three pillars of sustainability, three sub-objectives, namely the economy, environment, and society, are built for the proposed optimization model. The Epsilon-constraint technology is established to tackle the multi-objective model efficiently. Decisions on waste material recycling and exchanging flow are formulated in the proposed model, as well as options on reprocessing sites and reprocessing technology levels. The results show that the proposed Mixed-Inter Programming optimization method and Epsilon-constraint technology are sufficient to obtain the solutions of industrial symbiosis optimization. Technology level decisions integrated into the optimization model can balance the objectives of economy, environment, and society and provide a more extensive decision option space for managers. Raw material price and by-product recycling cost are two main elements of the waste material exchanging of industrial symbiosis optimization based on the parameter robustness analysis. Multi-objective optimization of waste material reprocessing and exchange network allows managers to make decisions based on different objective priorities.

Estimates of the Solution of the Balance Model Considering the Environmental Factor and Investment

The article explains the nonlinear balance model that considers disposal and recycling of wastes and investments. The suggested model is the equilibrium prices model in which the costs of harmful wastage disposal and recycling are considered. Besides, there are nonlinear interrelations between the branches of production, which allows us to predict the release of useful products, which is necessary for the economistsanalysts who are engaged in forecasting the manufactured products. For the model which is described by a system of differential equations, the conditions are created when the system of differential equations has only one solution. The paper defines the conditions under which this model is solvable and has a nonnegative solution, if at the same time the given values can be negative. For the model the methods of creating bilateral estimated solutions are adapted; the method of improving bilateral estimation is offered. Unlike the methods of searching the precise solution, the application of the method of bilateral estimation facilitates successful solution of tasks with big dimension of the processed models, without resorting to direct integration. The results of this article can be used in the solution of specific tasks of mathematics, economics, biology and other tasks with nonlinear interrelations.

Market development and consequences on end-of-life management of photovoltaic implementation in Europe

BackgroundThe 2018 European Renewables Directive sets a binding target of 32% of renewable energy generation by 2030. Free-field photovoltaic plants are characterised by significant land use and material flows. Although country-level data on installed power is available, information about the spatial distribution of PV plants is rare. When the first photovoltaic systems will reach their end-of-life on a large scale in 2035, economic, technological and ecological challenges will arise.MethodsThe study explores the market development of photovoltaic power in the EU countries from 2008 to 2017 by preparing statistical data and Google mapping of free-field PV plants. Different approaches to assessing the land use of free-field PV systems compared to other energy systems are investigated. A comprehensive literature review addresses key issues of PV module waste treatment, hazardous constituents and their leakage in case of module breakage as well as financial issues of decommissioning and recycling and re-use of used modules.ResultsMost of the European PV electrical energy is generated by approximately 17,000 widely distributed free-field plants predominantly installed in lowlands. A local in-depth study shows that roof-top plants contribute less than 5% to the total PV energy generation in an area without extensive expansion to industrial buildings. Small amounts of hazardous substances that are typically present in PV modules are unlikely to affect the environment during normal operation of the system, but the question of leakage from broken end-of-life modules is not sufficiently clarified. While in the EU, the recycling and disposal costs are covered by producer fees and expected raw material profits; the financing of the decommissioning of thousands of PV free-field plants is still an open issue.ConclusionsThe land use of free-field PV systems should be analysed in more detail. Concerning hazardous substances, there seems to be an emerging consensus in literature that the leaching behaviour of metals from broken PV module pieces is inadequately simulated by current waste characterisation protocols. It is recommended to pay greater attention to financing the decommissioning of free-field commercial and industrial scale PV systems.

Private and Externality Costs and Benefits of Recycling Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) Photovoltaic Panels

With solar photovoltaics (PV) playing an increasing role in our global energy market, it is now timely and critical to understand the end of life management of the solar panels. Recycling the panels can be an important pathway, possibly recovering a considerable amount of materials and adding economic benefits from currently installed solar panels. Yet, to date, the costs and benefits of recycling, especially when externality costs resulting from environmental pollution are considered, are largely unknown. In this study, we quantified the private and externality costs and benefits of recycling crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV panels. We found that the private cost of end-of-life (EoL) management of the c-Si PV module is USD 6.7/m2 and much of this cost is from transporting (USD 3.3/m2) and landfilling (USD 3.1/m2), while the actual recycling process (the cost of consumed materials, electricity or the investment for the recycling facilities) is very small (USD 0.3/m2). We found that the external cost of PV EoL management is very similar to the private cost (USD 5.2/m2). Unlike the breakdown of the private costs, much of the externality costs (USD 4.08/m2) come from the recycling process, which suggests that more environmentally friendly methods (e.g., recycling methods that involve fewer toxic chemicals, acids, etc.) should be preferred. We estimated that the total economic value of the recycled materials from c-Si PV waste is USD 13.6/m2. This means that when externality costs are not considered, the net benefit of recycling is USD 6.7; when the externality cost of recycling is considered, there is still a net benefit of USD 1.19 per m2.

3D-printed xylanase within biocompatible polymers as excellent catalyst for lignocellulose degradation

As a key hemicellulase, xylanase has great potential as catalyst of degrading lignocellulose. However, the practical application of xylanase in the industrial sector is limited by its instability, high production cost and difficulties of recycling. In this study, three-dimensional (3D) printing technology was used to immobilize xylanase. The optimum immobilization conditions were determined by single-factor experiments and response surface methods: sodium alginate (SA) concentration was 1 wt%, the CaCl2 concentration was 2 wt%, the cross-linking time was 10 min, and the reaction temperature was 52℃. As a biocompatible adhesive, calcium alginate (CA) can be easily printed. The structural programmability of 3D printing technology endowed the immobilized xylanase with sphere, hook, quadrangle and hexagon shapes. The immobilized xylanase exhibited the excellent reusability with recovered 60% enzyme activity after 7 times using compared with free xylanase. Moreover, the ability of 3D printed xylanase to degrade lignocellulose of corn cob at the large-scale indicated the great potential in the application of industrial production, which can provide a certain reference for the biological intelligent manufacturing of high value-added chemicals.

Stable recycling networks under the Extended Producer Responsibility

A recently emerging concept, Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), is being adopted by the government in more and more countries and regions. It shifts the burden of proper disposal of end-of-life consumer products from (local) governments to the producers that bring the products to the market. To comply with governments’ EPR-type legislation, producers form coalitions to have their products recycled in a more efficient way. In this paper, we study how two important determinants of recycling costs, fixed recycling costs and material-stream heterogeneity, influence producers’ recycling network (structure of producers’ recycling coalitions). On one hand, large fixed recycling costs make the coalitions typically larger, due to the economies of scale. On the other hand, large coalitions generate typically more heterogeneous material streams, which increase the variable recycling costs due to additional separation and disassembly efforts. This paper discusses two currently existing scenarios: one exists prior to EPR-type legislation (referred to as the Disparate Problem, or DP) and the other is motivated by EPR-type legislation (referred to as the Endogenous Problem, or EP). In DP, the recycling of end-of-life products is not the responsibility of any producer but the government. Therefore, the recycling network is determined to minimize the total recycling cost, which also maximizes the social welfare, while the outputs are determined by producers without concerns about recycling. In EP, producers who compete in a horizontally differentiated primary market may also collaborate at the same time to organize proper disposal of their products. As each producer is only interested in maximizing its own payoff and there may exist conflict of interests, we use the game-theoretical methodology to analyze the endogenous process of coalition-formation. We find structural differences in these two scenarios and conclude by discussing implications for social welfare of imposing tax or subsidy.

A combined cellulosic and starchy ethanol and biomethane production with stillage recycle and respective cost analysis

To minimize waste generation in ethanol production from starchy and cellulosic feedstocks, the feasibility of stillage recycle to fermentation process was studied. For sugarcane bagasse (SCB) and palm empty fruit bunch (EFB), optimal hot-compressed water (HCW) pretreatment and enzyme hydrolysis (10% wt) gave the highest total reducing sugar (TRS) yields of 64.2% and 67.3%, respectively. Ethanol fermentation of SCB, EFB and fresh cassava by Saccharomyces cerevisiae TISTR5606 gave the highest yields of 0.31 g g−1, 0.40 g g−1, and 0.31 g g−1 TRS, respectively. For recycling of SCB and EFB stillage, a slight decline of ethanol yield was found while ethanol yield of cassava significantly increased from 60.8% to 89.9%. The ethanol yields from the 2nd recycle of cassava was still 10% higher than no recycle. Addition of 10%–20% v/v black liquor from lignocellulosic HCW pretreatment into anaerobic digestion system noticeably enhanced the chemical oxygen demand removal and methane production. Analysis of variable operating cost showed that stillage recycles for 20% for fresh cassava and 10% for SCB is cost-effective process for ethanol production.

Potential Application of Ionic Liquids in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms for Small Molecule Drug and Vaccine Delivery System.

Ionic liquids are salts in which the ions are poorly coordinated, which causes them to exist in liquid form below 100°C, or at room temperature. Therefore, these are also defined as room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs). In ionic liquids, at least one ion has a delocalized charge and one component is organic, which prevents the formation of a stable solid form of crystal lattice. Physical properties of ionic liquids, such as melting point, viscosity, and solubility of starting materials and other solvents, are impacted by the substituents on the organic component and by the counterions. Many ionic liquids have even been developed to address specific synthetic problems and that is the reason these are also termed as "designer solvents". Ionic liquids are considered as "green solvents" that exhibit several unique characteristics such as high ionic conductivity, high solvation power, thermal stability, low volatility, and recyclability. Although very useful with several advantages, ionic liquids have some limitations that include high cost and ease of recycling. Moreover, the toxicity and biodegradability of ionic liquids are not yet well understood. Nonetheless, ionic liquids can potentially be used in the field of pharmacy in drug design and formulation development. In drug or vaccine dosage formulation development, ionic liquids can be used as a solubility enhancer, permeability enhancer, stabilizer, targeted delivery inducer, stealth property provider or bioavailability enhancer. In this article we reviewed the physical properties of ionic liquids and potential application of ionic liquids in developing formulations for vaccines and small molecule drugs (A table has been added).

A framework of photovoltaics recycling facility location optimization

Economic performance is the primary factor that restricts the development of photovoltaics recycling industry. A generic framework was developed to optimize the economic performance of photovoltaics recycling. In the framework, the overall recycling cost was optimized from the perspective of the capital cost, the operation cost, and the transportation cost. In order to perform the optimization, a mathematical model was developed to identify the geographic locations of photovoltaics recycling facilities. A case study was included for demonstrating the effectiveness of the framework. As a result, the optimal number of the recycling facilities as well as their locations were determined. In addition, the cost of the optimal recycling scenario was identified.

Solid waste collection optimization using scine-cosine algorithm

In this study, a mathematical model for optimizing the cost of solid waste recycling and management was developed. Sine-Cosine Algorithm (SCA) was used during the optimization process to identify the level of disposed solid wastes and recycled solid wastes. SCA is a recent optimization algorithm, which requires several initial individual random solutions and requires their outward or inward fluctuation towards the best solution with respect to a mathematical relationship that depends on sine and cosine functions. This algorithm also integrated several adaptive and random variables to ensure the exploration and exploitation of the solution space in different optimization tasks. The outcome of this study suggested the effectiveness of the SCA for least distance path allocation while effectively considering all factors.

Comprehensive kinetic study of thermal degradation of polyvinylchloride (PVC)

The plastic waste accumulation has been increasing and a solution other than landfilling is required. Due to the high cost of recycling, thermal treatment could be an option. However, the existence of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) would release hydrochloric acid which would cause emission problems as well as damage to the reactor systems. The thermal degradation of PVC has been studied over the years. However, the mechanism of the PVC thermal degradation is not fully developed. Specifically, the mechanism of the PVC thermal degradation at medium temperatures, which is more practical for industries, is still lacking. A degradation temperature of 300 °C was used to study the dehydrochlorination behavior of PVC. A rather comprehensive mechanism with four consecutive reactions has been developed based on the micro-pyrolysis experiments and has been validated and proved by predicting the mass loss, chlorine content, heat content and elemental composition with high precision experimental data in different reactors with/without heat transfer coupling.

Transportation costs of vehicle recycling under Hotelling’s Duopoly competition

We explore the spatial features of end-of-life product recyclers. Our motivation for this analysis comes from real-world data, which look very different because the change in the marginal transportation cost to distance seems negative. To tackle this question, a theoretical consideration is provided. The result derived from our analysis remains largely the same as that reported in conventional location theory. We utilize this puzzling data set to prove our analytical result, which has positive marginal transportation costs after proper empirical treatment. Combining the theoretical and empirical analyses that support agglomeration due to market competition, we conclude that it is important to prepare a place for recycling firms to foster the industry.

Combustion characteristics of solid refuse fuel derived from mixture of food and plastic wastes

In 2017, the amount of municipal waste generated in South Korea was 53,489.5 tons/day and almost 30% of this was food waste. Depending on the vegetable content, the water content of food waste ranges from 73.8 to 83.3 wt.%. In 2017, approximately 97% of food waste was converted into feed, compost, and biogas. However, recently, it has proven difficult to recycle this waste because of increased recycling costs and a lack of consumer awareness about recycled products. However, the drying and incinerating of food waste is emerging as an alternative recycling technology. When dried, food waste with high organic matter contents exhibits a low heating value of approximately 16,750 kJ/kg. In the present study, solid refuse fuel samples made by mixing dried food waste with 3–5 wt.% waste plastic were subjected to proximate and ultimate analysis, heating value measurement. Moreover, for 4 g waste samples, the combustion characteristics and flue gas were analyzed when they were burned in an air atmosphere using the constructed small-scale combustor. The waste samples made by mixing food waste with 3–5 wt.% waste polyethylene synthetic resin exhibited LHVs ranging from 17,710 to 18,500 kJ/kg. Moreover, the Cl concentration ranged from 0.95 to1.27 wt.%.

Solid waste collection optimization using scine-cosine algorithm

In this study, a mathematical model for optimizing the cost of solid waste recycling and management was developed. Sine-Cosine Algorithm (SCA) was used during the optimization process to identify the level of disposed solid wastes and recycled solid wastes. SCA is a recent optimization algorithm, which requires several initial individual random solutions and requires their outward or inward fluctuation towards the best solution with respect to a mathematical relationship that depends on sine and cosine functions. This algorithm also integrated several adaptive and random variables to ensure the exploration and exploitation of the solution space in different optimization tasks. The outcome of this study suggested the effectiveness of the SCA for least distance path allocation while effectively considering all factors.

System dynamic analysis of construction waste recycling industry chain in China.

With the acceleration of China's urbanization process, construction activities have led to a substantial increase in construction waste. However, as China's construction waste recycling rate is low, it is difficult to convert construction waste into valuable products for the sustainable development of waste resources. The biggest reason for this is the construction waste industrial chain, which is imperfect and has many problems. In this study, a simulation model is established using system dynamics software Vensim PLE. The analogue simulation shows that (1) China generates a large amount of construction waste every year. If construction waste source reduction measures are implemented, it will inhibit 50% of the waste generated. Upstream enterprises in the industry chain should actively develop waste reduction technology and improve waste reduction management; (2) marginal effect exists in the single waste reduction measure, but the government should implement more portfolio reduction measures to enhance the reduction effect, which is often three times that of the single policy; (3) the middle stream recycling enterprises in the industry chain cannot solely rely on government subsidies to reduce the cost of waste recycling. It is necessary to create synergistic linkages with more responsible entities upstream and downstream of the industry chain, thus creating a new model in construction waste management. (4) Government policies tend to drive the purchasing power of building material market. The government should actively exert its subjective initiative, supervise and provide policies to help the downstream enterprises that supply recycled building materials in the industry chain, and change the rigid understanding of contractors and owners about recycled building materials. The research conclusions can provide theoretical guidance for industry chain-related enterprises and government management departments in policy formulation, so that construction waste is sustainably developed.

Utilisation of coarse glass powder as pozzolanic cement—A mix design investigation

Cement production is a highly energy-intensive and environmentally polluting process, however, despite the detrimental effects, the production rates are increasing annually to meet the ever-rising demand. Hence, it is imperative to look out for materials that can be used in place of cement for promoting green construction and sustainability. On the other hand, glass, post-consumption, is dumped in landfills instead of recycling due to factors such as high recycling cost, cheap imports and lack of awareness to name a few. Since glass is a non-biodegradable material, the practice of dumping waste glass in the landfills is environmentally unsustainable. Recently it has been revealed that glass at particular fineness exhibits pozzolanic characteristics.The focus of this study is to investigate the pozzolanic attribute of a coarse glass powder (≤150 µm) used as a cement replacement; the substitution levels employed were 15% and 30% by weight of cement. In addition to the basic compressive strength testing, durability tests such as drying shrinkage, resistance to chloride ion penetration and heat of hydration were evaluated. The test results indicate that 30% is the ideal replacement level, providing a strength activity index (SAI) of 117%, a 32% higher resistance to chloride ion permeability and a 24% reduction in heat from hydration.