Costa Rica Research Articles

Importance of cyber protection in the power grid in the face of an uncertain future

In the digital era, cybersecurity is transforming the behavior of human beings in the correct use of technology, which is why it has become a critical element in business strategy, thus giving rise to the present research, which identified the current situation of associated companies in the process of generation, transmission, distribution and public lighting of electricity in Costa Rica, in the field of cybersecurity, with special emphasis on the identification, analysis and evaluation of policies, standards, procedures, controls, regulations and infrastructure in the sector. The study approach was quantitative, descriptive, and exploratory; based on a sample of experts in information security, where a survey was used for data collection. In the findings obtained, the existence of personnel with the technical knowledge to deal with a computer incident was observed, but from the business perspective, the lack of an institutional guideline and country strategy for the protection of the electrical network was recognized. In conclusion, there is a latent risk in the infrastructure of the national power grid, which is evidenced by the lack of a clear national strategy that establishes a roadmap to protect the sector against a possible cyber-attack.

A camouflaged diversity: taxonomic revision of the thorny lacewing subfamily Symphrasinae (Neuroptera, Rhachiberothidae).

Species of the thorny lacewing subfamily Symphrasinae (Neuroptera: Rhachiberothidae) are revised. Prior to this work, 42 species were known in the genera Anchieta Navás, 1909, Plega Navás, 1928, and Trichoscelia Westwood, 1852. Herein, the number of species is increased to 60, 23 of which are newly described. Species previously known are redescribed, and their taxonomic status is revised. Keys, diagnoses, and high-resolution images for all species are presented. The distribution range of Anchieta is now known from Costa Rica to southern Brazil with a total of 11 species, of which three are newly described. The genus Plega is known from southwestern United States to southern Brazil and includes 28 species of which 14 are described as new. Moreover, the genus Trichoscelia occurs from central and southern Mexico to Argentina, with a total of 21 species, of which six are herein newly described. A phylogenetic analysis of Symphrasinae based on morphological characters recovered the three symphrasine genera as monophyletic, with Anchieta sister to Plega + Trichoscelia. The three genera are newly diagnosed based on a cladistic framework. Within the genus Anchieta, bee-mimicking species comprise a monophyletic group, while wasp-mimicking species form a laddered sequence to that lineage. Within Plega, three lineages are recovered, the first mostly composed of South and Mesoamerican species, the second with species predominantly from Central America and central and southern Mexico, and a third clade encompassing species mostly from central and northern Mexico and southwestern United States. By contrast, relationships between species of Trichoscelia were poorly resolved because of a simplified and conserved morphology of this group.

Run Up Reflection And Stability Coefficients For Ordered Cube Slopes With Energy Dissipation

The results of an experimental investigation, aimed at analyzing the water flow, stability of the components, and the reflection coefficient of a slope consisting of concrete cubes arranged in an organized manner, similar to a paving stone style, alongside larger blocks to enhance overall roughness, are presented. The experiment took place in the wave flume and basin at the University of Costa Rica, testing wave ranges typical of the Pacific coasts of Central America, characterized by long swell periods.

A cross-national performance comparison universal healthcare systems of Chile, Costa Rica, Italy, and Spain using OECD data

Abstract Objectives To analyze Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) indicators for the Health Systems of Costa Rica, Spain, and Italy, focusing on year-to-year changes. Study design and methods Examining each country’s healthcare systems utilizes a value-for-money approach, aiming to outline their healthcare expenditures relative to the OECD average, while also assessing the value obtained from these investments. This involves contrasting reported indicator values for each country and the OECD average during a year close to the last decade’s outset (year 1) with data around 2020 (year 2). Results Results obtained are based on different indicators and the countries being examined. Costa Rica stood out with lowest healthcare investment, while Chile had the less population coverage for a set core of services. Italy and Spain achieved 100% healthcare coverage. All four regions reported decreased tobacco consumption in terms of non-medical determinants of health. Costa Rica showcased the highest vaccination coverage and experienced the most significant increase in this aspect within healthcare utilization. In the context of resource accessibility, waiting times from specialist assessment to treatment increased the most for hip replacement procedures in Chile, Costa Rica, Italy, and Spain. The Pharmaceutical Consumption analysis highlighted agents acting on the Renin-Angiotensin system as the most widely consumed category. Conclusion This analysis helps reveal the workings of diverse health systems, allowing us to pinpoint areas for potential improvement within each region. By examining the achievements and obstacles faced by other nations, policymakers and healthcare stakeholders acquire a valuable foundation on which to enact reforms.

Systematics, distribution patterns and historical biogeography of the Central America wandering spider genus Kiekie Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 (Araneae: Ctenidae).

Kiekie Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 is a Neotropical genus of Ctenidae, with most of its species occuring in Central America. In this study, we review the systematics of Kiekie and describe five new species and the unknown females of K. barrocolorado Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 and K. garifuna Polotow & Brescovit, 2018, and the unknown male of K. verbena Polotow & Brescovit, 2018. In addition, we described the female of K. montanense which was wrongly assigned as K. griswoldi Polotow & Brescovit, 2018 (both species are sympatric). We provided a modified diagnosis for previously described species based on the morphology of the newly discovered species and in situ photographs of living specimens. We inferred a molecular phylogeny using four nuclear (histone H3, 28S rRNA, 18S rRNA and ITS-2) and three mitochondrial genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I or COI, 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA) to test the monophyly of the genus and the evolutionary relationships of its species. Lastly, we reconstruct the historical biogeography and map diversity and endemism distributional patterns of the different species. This study increased the number of known species of Kiekie from 13 to 18, and we describe a new genus, Eldivo which is sister lineage of Kiekie. Most of the diversity and endemism of the genus Kiekie is located in the montane ecosystems of Costa Rica followed by the lowland rainforest of the Pacific side (Limon Basin). Kiekie originated in the North America Tropical region, this genus started diversifying in the Late Miocene and spread to Lower Central America and South America. In that region, Kiekie colonized independently several times the montane ecosystems corresponding to periods of uplifting of Talamanca and Central Cordilleras.

Spectral Wave Characterization Of The Pacific Coast Of Costa Rica

The results of the analysis of the wave measurement campaigns on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica are presented. After analyzing more than 14000 spectral shapes from sea states, it has been determined that many of them present 2 or more swell peaks, so it was proposed to perform a wave characterization in which 8 different types of spectra were defined to include all the data collected. Also, verifications were carried out in these sea states to check the reliability of many of the approximations usually used in coastal engineering that assume narrow-band spectra, such as the JONSWAP type.

Distinct orchid mycorrhizal fungal communities among co-occurring Vanilla species in Costa Rica: root substrate and population-based segregation.

Despite being the second largest family of flowering plants, orchids represent community structure variation in plant-microbial associations, contributes to niche partitioning in metacommunity assemblages. Yet, mycorrhizal communities and interactions remain unknown for orchids that are highly specialized or even obligated in their associations with their mycorrhizal partners. In this study, we sought to compare orchid mycorrhizal fungal (OMF) communities of three co-occurring hemiepiphytic Vanilla species (V. hartii, V. pompona, and V. trigonocarpa) in tropical forests of Costa Rica by addressing the identity of their OMF communities across species, root types, and populations, using high-throughput sequencing. Sequencing the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (nrITS) yielded 299 fungal Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) from 193 root samples. We showed distinct segregation in the putative OMF (pOMF) communities of the three coexisting Vanilla hosts. We also found that mycorrhizal communities associated with the rare V. hartii varied among populations. Furthermore, we identified Tulasnellaceae and Ceratobasidiaceae as dominant pOMF families in terrestrial roots of the three Vanilla species. In contrast, the epiphytic roots were mainly dominated by OTUs belonging to the Atractiellales and Serendipitaceae. Furthermore, the pOMF communities differed significantly across populations of the widespread V. trigonocarpa and showed patterns of distance decay in similarity. This is the first report of different pOMF communities detected in roots of wild co-occurring Vanilla species using high-throughput sequencing, which provides evidence that three coexisting Vanilla species and their root types exhibited pOMF niche partitioning, and that the rare and widespread Vanilla hosts displayed diverse mycorrhizal preferences.

A new genus of halictine bees from Central America (Hymenoptera: Halictidae)

A new genus and species of halictine bees (Halictinae: Halictini: Mexalictina) is described and figured from a mid-elevation forest in northwestern Costa Rica. Meliamelitta vulcanus gen. and sp. n. is allied to Mexalictus Eickwort but differs in the structure of the labral basal elevation, the obtuse epistomal sulcus, the elongate mandibles, the pectinate inner metatibial spur, the unique pterostigma, and the sculpturing of the basal area of the propodeum, among other features. A key is appended to the genera and subgenera of Mesoamerican, Central American, and Caribbean Halictinae to facilitate the recognition of the genus.

Influence of vegetation structure and climatic conditions on abundance of free-living Amblyomma ticks (Acari; Ixodidae) in a Costa Rican dry forest

Resumen. Diferencias entre hábitats y la variación en las condiciones ambientales son factores que frecuentemente afectan la abundancia en las poblaciones de muchos animales, y el efecto de esta variación puede afectar de manera diferente cada estadio del ciclo de vida de un animal. En este estudio se compara el efecto de diferentes hábitats y cambio en las condiciones ambientales (e.g., temperatura y precipitación) sobre la abundancia de larvas, ninfas y adultos de garrapatas duras (Amblyomma spp.) en un bosque seco tropical. La abundancia de larvas fue alta en todos los hábitats, pero las ninfas y adultas fueron más abundantes en aquellos sitios más boscosos (mayor cobertura forestal). Los sitios boscosos posiblemente proporcionan condiciones más adecuadas para la sobrevivencia de los tres estadios de las garrapatas (larvas, ninfas y adultas) durante los periodos de búsqueda de huéspedes. Se encontró también que el pico de abundancia de los tres estadios ocurrió durante o cerca de la estación seca. Esto sugiere que las garrapatas tienen un pico reproductivo asociado con la estación seca, pero solamente la abundancia de ninfas se correlacionó con la variación en las condiciones ambientales.

Tracing the origins of sea turtle eggs in the markets of Costa Rica

AbstractUnsustainable wildlife trade is a major contributor to biodiversity loss; however, trade regulations have failed to prevent the decline of high‐profile species. Where wildlife is traded legally, opportunities exist to launder protected species through legal channels. The legal commercialization of olive ridley sea turtle eggs from Ostional, Costa Rica, has been criticized with some suggesting that the legal trade stimulates illegal extraction and sale of eggs. We aimed to identify whether the traceability rules, under which the Ostional project operates, were suitably robust. We surveyed markets across Costa Rica, by purchasing openly available sea turtle eggs and recording qualitative and quantitative data at the point of sale. We found that 378 (80%) of turtle eggs openly sold in the market were from olive ridley sea turtles. Green (n = 5) and leatherback (n = 6) turtle eggs were only on offer on three occasions, but no vendor referred to Ostional. Vendors frequently breached trade regulations, which appeared to be due to these regulations misaligning with consumer demand. Although the Ostional traceability rules are regularly flouted, we found no evidence that Ostional is being used as a cover to sell eggs from other turtle species.

A first species-wide phylogenetic analysis of small mammals from Costa Rica using mitochondrial cytochrome b

AbstractCosta Rica is within the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot and has about 53 native species of small mammals. This high diversity, along with recent records of new species and indications of cryptic genetic diversity, suggest that application of the DNA barcoding approach would be worthwhile. Here we used 131 tissue samples of small mammals from multiple localities in Costa Rica and sequenced the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b (1140 bp). These samples represented 17 recognized species and two taxa of uncertain status. The new sequence data were supplemented with previously published data from INSDC. Our phylogenetic analyses are consistent with and extend upon recent revisions in Heteromys, Peromyscus and Reithrodontomys and suggest possible new cryptic forms within what are currently named Melanomys chrysomelas, Nyctomys sumichrasti and Proechimys semispinosus. The previously named “Heteromys sp” is indeed likely a new species requiring a full taxonomic description. Moreover, we found new localities for previously described species substantiating recent taxonomic surveys and field guides for the small mammals of Costa Rica. To confirm the presence of cryptic species and major genetic forms in Heteromys, Peromyscus, Reithrodontomys, Melanomys, Nyctomys and Proechimys there needs to be greater sampling, additional genetic markers, morphometrics and other studies. Scotinomys also shows interesting phylogenetic subdivision, requiring further investigation.

Clusia salicifolia (Clusiaceae), una nueva especie hemiepifita de Costa Rica y Panamá

SummaryWe describe and illustrate Clusia salicifolia (Clusiaceae) a new species from Central America. This new species is different to all related species for its hemiepiphytic habit, narrow leaves with acute to acuminate apex, reticulate resin canals, staminate flowers with quadrangular androecium with 30 – 47 free stamens, and pistillate flowers with 4 stigmas and 4 pairs of stamen-like staminodia. The species is known from a limited number of localities in lowland wet forests in Costa Rica and Panama and is here assessed as endangered under the IUCN criteria.

Esboço para uma leitura iconográfica dos objetos artísticos marianos na Costa Rica

This article provides an iconographic reading of the figure of Mary of Nazareth based on the description and contextualization of artistic objects in Costa Rica. The study uses only the first two levels of reading proposed by Panofsky (1987). First, the pre-iconographic description, as a practical experience that facilitates familiarization with the objects and the circumstances that surround them, and second, the iconographic analysis to trace the constitution of the world of images, stories and allegories that underlie artistic assets. The study join the different Marian titles seen in different plastic artistic supports, into three large categories: 1. Joyful Mary; 2. Glorious Mary and 3. Mary Sorrowful, which are associated with the narrative of the mysteries of the Rosary, and are also linked to the way in which the Marian cult developed from Divine Motherhood dogmas, the Assumption to heaven and the Mary’s compassion towards her Son`s death.

A new species of planthopper in the genus Myconus (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Fulgoroidea: Achilidae) from the Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica

Recent surveys of palm-associated planthoppers in Costa Rica have revealed many new species, primarily in the families Derbidae and Cixiidae, but also Myconus jacquelinae Bahder & Bartlett, in the Achilidae. Here a new species of Myconus from the the Osa peninsula is described as Myconus florae sp. n. with supplemental molecular data for the barcoding region (5’-half) of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene, 18S rRNA gene, and histone 3 (H3) gene. A key to all species of Myconus is provided.

Genotyping of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) germplasm resources with SNP markers linked to agronomic traits reveals signs of selection

The Amazonian cacao tree or the chocolate tree (Theobroma cacao L.) is cultivated to produce seeds, the valuable raw material for the chocolate industry. However, cacao yield is hampered by diseases and low productivity. Cacao single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers associated with breeding and adaptive traits provide a genetic tool for improving selection and reducing breeding cycles. Here, we genotyped 40 published SNPs associated with disease resistance and 11 SNPs with yield traits in 346 accessions using the MassARRAY® system. These 51 SNPs were identified in different breeding experiments in Costa Rica, Brazil, and Trinidad and Tobago. Four genetic clusters were identified, and two of them were observed in high proportion in managed cacao, characterized by a high proportion of admixed individuals reflecting the man-made hybrids. One cluster overrepresented in managed cacao is associated with the preference to keep superior flavor in cultivated cacao from Criollo ancestry. Introgression of wild material collected in Peru associated with disease resistance to witches’ broom disease (WBD) was also observed. Underutilized genetic resources were observed in managed cacao such as the Guiana cacao, while previous agronomic evaluation has demonstrated its good yield potential. Yield and disease resistance traits (mainly resistance to WBD) show divergence between wild and managed cacao (FST > 0.05) probably reflecting selection during domestication, cultivation, and breeding efforts. Eleven SNPs showed a divergence between wild and managed cacao and can be used to build breeding populations. New collections of wild cacao followed by agronomic evaluations can broaden the genetic base of cultivated cacao, especially for such traits as disease resistance to frosty pod rot (FPR).

Sustainable and Healthy Gastronomy in Costa Rica – Betting on Sustainable Diets

Abstract Current consumption patterns in Costa Rica, and other countries, are often driven by misinformation and lack of knowledge about the nutritional value and sustainability of food products, which leads to unhealthy diets and loss of food biodiversity. In 2012, Costa Rica launched a multi-stakeholder initiative, The National Plan on Healthy and Sustainable Gastronomy (hereafter referred to as the Plan), to reverse this trend. Healthy and Sustainable Gastronomy (HSG) is an innovative paradigm for the sustainability of natural resources based on the consumers’ decision to prepare and enjoy food to be healthy. It is one of various approaches and solutions provided by One Planet Network, which hosts the UN Sustainable Food Systems Programme. Costa Rica’s Plan promotes a new healthy and sustainable national cuisine as a driving force to create a sustainable food system and improve the health of the population through diet. The cuisine is designed to increase the use of local, traditional and plant-based foods and aims to reduce obesity and micronutrient deficiencies. Additional benefits are food security, increased food biodiversity and tourism through gastronomic food culture. This case study explains the concept of HSG and how Costa Rica implemented it to change consumer behaviour; support local producers; achieve national goals for sustainable development; promote tourism and improve population health. Important progress has been made, but lack of information and awareness about linkages connecting food production and consumption is a major barrier. Information challenges include a lack of traceability systems and eco-labelling to build consumer trust, ongoing consumer education, and ensuring production will satisfy demand. Overall, the authors believe that Costa Rica will act as a model of HSG for other countries to follow in order to achieve sustainable food production and consumption, bridging the gap between emerging markets and Western economies. Information © CAB International 2019

[A historical review of the historical records of house dust mites in Pacific and Latin America Continental countries].

Review the historical records of house dust mites in the countries of the Pacific and continental Caribbean of Latin America. A systematic review was carried out, adapting the PRISMA method, in digital repositories using a combination of the terms in Spanish: "ácaros domésticos" "alergia" and in English: "dust mites" "allergy" with the names of the countries "Costa Rica". "Panamá" "Venezuela" "Colombia" "Ecuador" "Peru" between 1970-2022. The inclusion criteria were presence of the mite species, city or municipality, country, height above sea level and year. A database was built in Microsoft Excel Office 365®. Maps were created using QGIS 3.30 geographic information systems and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the findings. From the search and identification, 3959 references were obtained, of which 133 were considered potentially eligible, of these 45 met inclusion criteria, and only 32 presented records of domestic mite species. Historically there were 424 records and 27 species (18 genera and 9 families). The countries with the most studies and records were Colombia (14 and 242), Panama (8 and 64) and Peru (5 and 74). 66% (281/424) of the records were of the species Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (81), followed by Blomia tropicalis (58), D. farinae (40), Chortoglyphus arcuatus (39), Cheyletus sp. (33) and Euroglyphus maynei (30). The species with the greatest altitudinal range were D. pteronyssinus, (2-4800 m.a.s.l) and E. maynei (2- 3399 m.a.s.l). A synthesis was presented on the historical geographical and altitudinal distribution of house dust mites in countries of the Pacific and continental Caribbean of Latin America, which in turn allowed us to determine the species with the greatest records, highlighting those of importance in allergology. These findings are an input for acarological surveillance in public health.

Conservation education initiatives for elementary school students at La Suerte Biological Research Station, Costa Rica

Abstract Maderas Rainforest Conservancy (MRC) is a conservation non-profit organization that protects forests, offers primate field schools, and leads community outreach initiatives at sites in Central America, including La Suerte Biological Research Station (LSBRS) in Costa Rica. In 2018, MRC started Aula Verde, a conservation education initiative for elementary school students aged 5-12 at LSBRS. Groups of children from elementary schools and communities located within 50 km have visited LSBRS from 2018-2023 to participate in the 1.5-2 hour Aula Verde workshop, which consists of (1) an interactive lecture on conservation, (2) a guided forest walk, and (3) a snack, gift bag, and tree seedling for each participant. Workshops are funded by international donations to MRC and cost US $8-16 per student. Aula Verde has been successful, with multiple schools and communities making repeat visits, students’ families beginning to recycle their garbage and joining a WhatsApp group about conservation education that MRC staff initiated and lead, and teachers reporting improved learning outcomes for students who participate in the workshops. The success of Aula Verde is largely due to the ecological expertise and strong community ties of LSBRS staff. While the COVID-19 pandemic decreased Aula Verde offerings from 2020-2023, we expect workshops to resume at full capacity in 2024. In the future, MRC hopes to expand Aula Verde’s outreach to all children aged 5-12 living within 50 km of LSBRS.

Four New Species of Hiraea (Malpighiaceae) and Review of H. brachyptera

Four new species of Hiraea Jacq. (Malpighiaceae) from Costa Rica and Panama are proposed: H. hispida C. E. Anderson, H. oligantha C. E. Anderson, H. pleiantha C. E. Anderson, and H. velutinissima C. E. Anderson. A previously misidentified specimen from Panama is the first record of H. brachyptera Triana & Planch. in Central America. All species are described and illustrated. A key to species of Hiraea with multiflowered umbels occurring in Mesoamerica is provided.

Industria láctea en Costa Rica: desafíos y oportunidades para su desarrollo sostenible

This article addresses the contemporary status of the dairy industry in Costa Rica, emphasizing the challenges and opportunities it presents for its evolution. A thorough analysis of the industrial structure, production, employment generation, and the dynamics of exports and imports in relation to preferential tariff fluctuations is conducted. During the study period, a significant increase in Costa Rican dairy production is highlighted, and notable challenges are pinpointed, including tariff changes under the Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) and heightened competition with global dairy firms. Nevertheless, the vast potential for establishing market differentiators and capturing niche segments in this industry is underscored. The importance of institutional backing and the execution of strategies, designed in synergy between public and private sectors, is accentuated. The study’s outcomes suggest that the competitiveness of the dairy sector, both locally and internationally, is crafted through the amalgamation of efforts in pursuit of a favorable environment. The article concludes with recommendations aimed at amplifying industry competitiveness and advocating sustainable growth.