Costs Of Crime Research Articles

Education and social care predictors of offending trajectories: A UK administrative data linkage study.

ObjectivesTotal annual costs of crime in England and Wales is estimated at £50bn.The age-crime curve indicates that criminal behavioural peaks in adolescence and decreases in adulthood. Life-course persistent offenders begin to behave antisocially early in childhood and continue this behaviour into adulthood. By contrast, adolescent-limited offenders exhibit most of their antisocial behaviour during adolescence, with a minority continuing to offend into adulthood. However, evidence suggests that this curve conceals distinct developmental trajectories. Prospective cohort study data has highlighted distinct risk factors for these offending trajectories, but this research is limited because of small sample sizes for disadvantaged groups, selection bias and infrequency of data collection. ApproachThe current study began in February 2022 and is one of the first to use UK linked national crime and education records. The aim is to: (1) establish the offending trajectories of individuals between the ages of 10 and 32 years following their first recorded conviction or caution using national crime records; and (2) develop prediction models of these offending trajectories using administrative education and social care data. ResultsIn my talk, I will share findings on the offending trajectories identified and present some early results on the key education and social care drivers of the offending trajectories. ConclusionsFindings from the project have the potential to identify previously unknown, or confirm lesser known, offending trajectories using real world data based on the UK population. It may also lead to the detection of previously unknown risk or protective factors for offending, which has implications for early intervention and could help inform criminal justice system responses to early antisocial behaviour.

The Dark Triad of Personality: Attitudes and Beliefs Towards White-Collar Crime

Studies have identified the Dark Triad as a predictor of crime. White-Collar Crime (WCC) costs billions of estimated losses and has significant consequences for businesses, employees and consumers. Despite this, research on the Dark Triad and WCC is scarce. This study aimed to explore the relationship between the Dark Triad and WCC. Analyses, which were conducted on a sample of 157 participants, revealed significant relationships between subclinical psychopathy (disinhibition and meanness), narcissism, and attitudes and beliefs towards WCC. Sub-components of the Dark Triad do not have the same predictive powers. These findings have several implications, ranging from exploring which personality traits can predict potential predispositions towards WCC, to offering a much-needed empirical foundation in the development of effective prevention strategies.

THE INJUSTICE OF UNDER-POLICING IN AMERICA

THE INJUSTICE OF UNDER-POLICING IN AMERICA

Feature engineering to detect fraud using healthcare claims data

Insurance fraud is ranked second in the list of expensive crimes in the United States, with healthcare fraud being the second highest amongst all insurance fraud. Contrary to the popular belief, insurance fraud is not a victimless crime. The cost of crime is passed onto law-abiding citizens in the form of increased premiums or serious harm or danger to beneficiaries. To combat this kind of societal threat, there is an intense need for healthcare fraud detection systems to evolve. Some common roadblocks in implementing digital advancements (as seen in other domains) to healthcare are the complexity, heterogeneity of the data systems, and varied health program models across the United States. In other words, data are not stored in a centralized manner due to the sensitive domain nature, thus making it difficult to implement a robust real-world fraud-detection system. At the same time, in addition to the complexity of the varied systems involved, there is also the need to meet certain standards before a fraud actor can be prosecuted in a litigation setting. Thus, there is a human aspect to the fraud detection process flow in the real-world.In this article, a novel framework was outlined that converts diverse prescription claims (both fee-for-service and managed care) into a set of input variables/features suitable for implementation of an advanced statistical modeling fraud framework. This article thus aims to contribute to the existing literature by describing a process to transform prescription claims data to secondary features specific to provider fraud detection. The core idea was to focus on three main aspects of fraud (business heuristics on claims, provider-to-prescriber relations, and provider’s client populations) to design the input features. A systematic method was proposed to extract features that have the potential to detect billing or behavioral outliers among pharmacy providers using information extracted from a secondary database (outpatient prescriptions). The application of a commonly used dimensionality reduction method, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), was evaluated. PCA evaluates and reduces the extensive feature subspace to only those that captures the most variance in the data. To evaluate the features extracted from this framework, the application of the engineered features and the principal components to out-of-the-box logistic regression and Random Forest algorithms were considered to identify potential fraud. The engineered features when tested in different experimental settings with a logistic regression model had the highest area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve of 0.76 and a weighted F score of 0.85 while a random forest model had the highest area under curve of 0.74 and a weighted F score of 0.88.

The influence of individual differences on the formation of perceptions of risk, social cost, and rewards of crime: A meta-analysis

PurposeAssess whether individual differences systematically influence perceptions of risk, social costs, and rewards of engaging in crime. MethodsThe current study subjected previous research on the association between individual differences and rational choice to a meta-analysis to 1) address whether individual differences influence perceptions of risk, social costs, and reward, 2) identify specific individual differences that influence these perceptions, and 3) assess aspects of study design that influence the associations between individual differences and perceptions. ResultsMeta-analyzing 178 estimates suggested that several individual differences influence perceptions of risk, social costs, and rewards. The results also suggested that individual differences among youths have a stronger influence on perceptions of risk and a weaker influence on perceptions of rewards relative to adults. ConclusionsPerceptions are partially a byproduct of individual differences. Future research should examine how components of rational choice (i.e., perceptions of risk and reward) are formed and the processes that link individual differences and perceptions (e.g., early childhood development). Understanding these relationships will allow criminologists to better project the realized impact that might follow policy changes in the criminal justice system.

Beyond the Drinker: Alcohol's Hidden Costs in 2016 in Australia

Drawing on a study of the range and magnitude of harms that alcohol caused to specific others in Australia, and on social and health agency statistics for collective costs, this article produces an analysis of the economic cost of alcohol's harm to others (AHTO) in Australia. This study used a general population survey and routinely collected social response agencies' data to quantify different costs of AHTO, using methods consistent with International Guidelines for Estimating the Costs of Substance Abuse. This approach estimates costs for health care and social services, crime costs, costs of productivity loss, quality of life-year loss and other expenses, including both tangible costs (direct and indirect) and intangible costs of loss of quality of life (respondents' self-reported loss of health-related quality of life). The cost of AHTO in Australia was AUD$19.81 billion (95% CI [11.99, 28.34]), with tangible costs accounting for 58% of total costs ($11.45 billion, which is 0.68% of gross domestic product in 2016) and intangible costs of $8.36 billion. The costs to private individuals or households ($18.1 billion and 89% of total costs of AHTO) are greater than the costs to the government or society because of others' drinking in Australia. This study presents an estimation of the economic cost of harm from others' drinking. The economic costs from others' drinking are large and of much the same magnitude as the costs that drinkers impose on themselves, as found in previous studies. Preventing harm to others from drinking is important as a public health goal for both economic and humane reasons.

The Waste Mafia [technology - waste

Waste crime is now more lucrative than contract killing, and criminals are getting more sophisticated. But could technology help end it once and for all? "OUR GOAL FOR waste crime is very simple: stop it. That's an audacious ambition, about which we are totally unapologetic," said a determined Sir James Bevan in a stirring speech to the waste industry earlier this year. Bevan, who is chief executive of the Environment Agency (EA), noted that waste crime costs the economy around £1bn each year and attracts organised criminals, who invest their ill-gotten proceeds into cycles of violence. This is because rewards are high - often greater than robbery, drug dealing or contract killing - and the chances of being caught "have always been relatively low, and the penalties if you are caught traditionally light", he said. The EA is talking tough. Yet the concern is that six years ago Bevan made a similar speech, in which he famously likened waste crime to the "new narcotics" and pledged to bring down the "waste mafia". Since then, the situation has deteriorated.

A Supermarket Anti-Theft Scanner : digiSCAN

Supermarket shopping is an essential part of the livelihood of most people around the world. Consumers can acquire items essential for their daily activities. However, in an ever-evolving world with an increasing population and increasing crime rates, supermarket theft is becoming a prevalent problem with supermarket owners spending large sums of money on hiring security often with little effect. Organized Retail Crime (ORC) costs the retail industry approximately $30 billion each year, with 71.3% of retailers reporting an increase in ORC year-over-year. With the current global economic conditions, high labor costs are longer feasible. Consumers also face the issue of paying for items they did not select. Advanced camera systems, for some, may be an escape however, this approach is not feasible for all aspects of shopping and in underdeveloped countries that have technical constraints. The advent of digitization has helped improve the livelihood of consumers in Ghana. Currently, many large-scale retailers are oblivious to some of these advancements. The oblivion of the management of such retail services results in the loss of products, customer dissatisfaction, and the mismanagement of untracked products by employees. To reduce theft and the mismanagement of products by employees, a smart antitheft system should be deployed in supermarkets; at the till and before the exit of supermarkets to ensure all products leaving the store are paid for and accounted for. The system consists of a deactivation and theft detection system. The product is deactivated by the store attendant at the till when the customer pays for the product. However, if a customer crosses the initial warning zone without paying, a warning sound is triggered and after the customer crosses the final warning zone, the alarm is triggered indicating an attempted theft by the customer. A log of products is also kept ensuring employees are not stealing products. This paper presents a smart way of detecting theft during supermarket shopping using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers and tags, a microcontroller-based control system, a database server, and an Integromat.

A Supermarket Anti-Theft RFID Scanner : digiSCAN

Supermarket shopping is an essential part of the livelihood of most people around the world. Consumers can acquire items essential for their daily activities. However, in an ever-evolving world with an increasing population and increasing crime rates, supermarket theft is becoming a prevalent problem with supermarket owners spending large sums of money on hiring security often with little effect. Organized Retail Crime (ORC) costs the retail industry approximately $30 billion each year, with 71.3% of retailers reporting an increase in ORC year-over-year. With the current global economic conditions, high labor costs are longer feasible. Consumers also face the issue of paying for items they did not select. Advanced camera systems, for some, may be an escape however, this approach is not feasible for all aspects of shopping and in underdeveloped countries that have technical constraints. The advent of digitization has helped improve the livelihood of consumers in Ghana. Currently, many large-scale retailers are oblivious to some of these advancements. The oblivion of the management of such retail services results in the loss of products, customer dissatisfaction and the mismanagement of untracked products by employees. To reduce theft and the mismanagement of products by employees, a smart antitheft system should be deployed in supermarkets; at the till and before the exit of supermarkets to ensure all products leaving the store are paid for and accounted for. The system consists of a deactivation and theft detection system. The product is deactivated by the store attendant at the till when the customer pays for the product. However, if a customer crosses the initial warning zone without paying, a warning sound is triggered and after the customer crosses the final warning zone, the alarm is triggered indicating an attempted theft by the customer. A log of products is also kept ensuring employees are not stealing products. This paper presents a smart way of detecting theft during supermarket shopping using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers and tags, microcontroller-based control system, a database server and an Integromat

Shutting the Gate: A Preliminary Study of Farm Crime Prevention Methods Used by the Police in Rural England and Wales

Rural crime is an issue for farms across the United Kingdom. The costs of farm crime are at their highest level in eight years and impact on both farmers and consumers. Past research has examined farmers' attitudes towards farm crime prevention but the attitudes of the police have been little explored. Police forces in rural England and Wales were surveyed about their views on farm crime prevention (e.g. prevention methods used, efficacy of methods, future of farm crime prevention). Traditional and community-based prevention methods such as regular patrols, proactive operations, prevention initiatives and community education were widely used, as were technological prevention methods such as CCTV. Just over half of respondents perceived these methods to be effective though concerns were raised that their efficacy was affected by limited police resources. The majority of respondents felt that the future of farm crime prevention would involve better physical security, more CCTV and more crime prevention initiatives.

Supplemental Material for How Much Does That Cost? Examining the Economic Costs of Crime in North America Attributable to People With Psychopathic Personality Disorder

Supplemental Material for How Much Does That Cost? Examining the Economic Costs of Crime in North America Attributable to People With Psychopathic Personality Disorder

The barriers of identity: Population diversity, social trust, and crime

Based on the 2014 China Labor-force Dynamics Survey data, this paper constructs a population diversity index to test the impact of population diversity on crime rates. The results suggest that population diversity is one of the causes of increasing urban crime. After considering the endogeneity problem and testing the robustness from different perspectives, the conclusion remains unchanged. The results of mediation tests indicate that social trust is an important mediator variable, that is, population diversity leads to an increase of crime rate when the level of social trust is low. Moreover, the results also show that the impact of population diversity on crime is much weaker when property rights protections are more complete, people have more confidence in the court system, and the government spends more on education and social security. This shows that better institutions can, to some extent, replace the role of non-market forces, thereby curbing the negative impact of population diversity on crime rates. It also suggests that public expenditure can reduce the likelihood of crime by increasing the opportunity cost of crime. This paper provides empirical evidence valuable to government crime control policies in China. Governments at all levels should pay full attention to the adverse effects of cultural differences in governance and promote mutual cultural recognition and integration of different groups.

Costs and benefits of an early intervention for juvenile offenders – The ‘Treatment Foster Care Oregon Program’

The aim of this study is to make a cost-benefit analysis of the Treatment Foster Care Oregon (TFCO) program, a treatment program for children and juveniles with behavioural problems who are placed in out-of-home placements. Compared to treatment as usual, TFCO has been shown to reduce the number of violent crimes. This study estimates the net present value (NPV) of the program by comparing the expected reduction in cost of violent crimes due to the introduction of the program to the incremental cost of the program. The result shows a positive NPV of $37,829 per participant, or a total NPV of $718,751.

The local effects of federal law enforcement policies: Evidence from sanctuary jurisdictions and crime

AbstractThis study estimates the association between sanctuary policies and crime in the United States by exploiting an increase in state and local sanctuary policy adoption in 2014. Counties that adopted sanctuary policies in 2014 experienced a decrease of 17.9 violent crimes per 100,000 inhabitants per year (0.02 percentage points) compared to counties that continued to cooperate with Immigration and Customs Enforcement Agency (ICE), with the relationship driven by decreases in robberies and assaults. This result implies that sanctuary policies avoid $101 million per year in crime costs. Conversely, ICE cooperation increases crime costs in local communities by $3.28 billion per year.

Delineating the relationship between maritime insecurity and COVID-19 pandemic on West African maritime trade

In this paper, three steps are made. First, an effort is made to show a consequential effect of maritime insecurity on seafarers and marine professionals; they are at risk of a complicated string of processes that impact their lives. Second, there is the risk to the environment and property. Third, the economic cost of traditional maritime crimes is examined against the potential maritime trade expansion from implementing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Third, the policy and regulatory measures implemented in the region against piracy are assessed to propose additional measures for improvement. Essentially, the study deploys a case study approach with a three-year field observation over the Gulf of Guinea region and is supported by outcomes of various remote interviews, in addition to online surveys conducted over three months—findings are juxtaposed with the estimated cost of piracy and potential implications for policies driving economic advancement. The results showed inadequate maritime surveillance despite enormous legal frameworks amidst the current structures of regional and international corporations. The piracy cost is high and inevitable as a factor of insurance coverage passed onto end consumers. Response to piracy has been reactionary rather than proactive, as attacks have continued in territorial and offshore areas into 2021. The impact will be visible on AfCFTA post-COVID-19. The study highlights the need for a community-based approach to surveillance modelled after the community policing model currently implemented in Ghana.

The “mandatory” right to education as means of reintegration into society

Internationally, human rights law guarantees a universal right to education. Education and training of inmates help reduce the social costs of crime. People outside of the prison environment have the luxury, or better yet freedom, of choosing the reason for pursuing a form of education or training, whilst for prisoners it is predetermined. Given that its final scope is the reintegration of prisoners into society as full functioning citizens, the right to education becomes an obligation to the state to guarantee the access to the resources available. Thus, the complexity of this right can be better seen in the prison environment, as its final purpose is to ensure that discipline and order are maintained in society.

Local access to mental healthcare and crime

We estimate the effect of local access to office-based mental healthcare on crime. We leverage variation in the number of mental healthcare offices within a county over the period 1999 to 2014 in a two-way fixed-effects model. We find that increases in the number of mental healthcare offices reduce crime. In particular, ten additional offices in a county reduces crime by 1.6 crimes per 10,000 residents, or 0.4% relative to the sample mean. Adjusting crimes based on their social costs implies larger effect sizes: ten additional offices reduces crime costs per capita by 2.2%. These findings suggest an unintended benefit from expanding the office-based mental healthcare workforce: reductions in crime.

Sanctuary cities and crime

Sanctuary policies may attract criminals and lower the opportunity cost of crime, while these policies produce a spiral of trust that supports police and raises informal social control over crime. I estimate the dynamic effects of sanctuary policies on crime rates at city level. This paper finds (1) no evidence that sanctuary policies cause an increase in any crime, (2) some evidence that they may lead to a decrease in property crime, and the effect is strengthened over time after the adoption, (3) the increased trust between residents and police is likely the reason for the negative effect.

The Effect of E-Verify Laws on Crime

E-Verify laws, which have been adopted by 23 states, require employers to verify whether new employees are eligible to legally work prior to employment. This study explores the impact of state E-Verify laws on crime. Using data from the 2004–2015 National Incident Based Reporting System, the authors find that the enactment of E-Verify is associated with a 7% reduction in property crime incidents involving Hispanic arrestees. This finding was strongest for universal E-Verify mandates that extend to private employers and its external validity bolstered by evidence from the Uniform Crime Reports. Supplemental analyses from the Current Population Survey suggest two mechanisms to explain this result: E-Verify-induced increases in the employment of low-skilled natives of Hispanic descent and out-migration of younger Hispanics. Findings show no evidence that arrests were displaced to nearby jurisdictions without E-Verify or that violent crime or arrests of African Americans were affected by E-Verify laws. The magnitudes of the estimates suggest that E-Verify laws averted $491 million in property crime costs to the United States.

The Aggregate Cost of Crime in the United States

Estimates of crime’s burden inform public and private decisions about crime-prevention measures. More than counts of criminal offenses, the aggregate cost of crime conveys the scale of problems from crime and the value of deterrence. This article offers an estimate of the total annual cost of crime in the United States, including the direct costs of law enforcement, criminal justice, and victims’ losses and the indirect costs of private deterrence, fear and agony, and time lost to avoidance and recovery. The findings update crime-cost estimates of past decades while expanding the scope of coverage to include categories missing from past studies. The estimated annual cost of crime is $4.71–$5.76 trillion including transfers from victims to criminals and $2.86–$3.92 trillion net of transfers.