Corpus Hippocraticum Research Articles

From the Hippocratic Oath to modern deontological codes: continuity or overcoming?

Even if the Hippocratic Oath in its enlightened synthesis encapsulates the essence of the great master's deontological teachings, there is no doubt that a more complete picture of Hippocratic ethics can be gleaned from the contents of the entire Corpus Hippocraticum, and it matters little if the various writings contained therein are not all attributable to him, but are in fact the work of various authors who lived between the 5th and 2nd centuries BC.

Hippocrate’s Contribution Exploring the Tashrih-Al-Nizam-E-Baul (Anatomy of Urinary System): A Comprehensive Review

Hippocrates' early contributions to the understanding of urinary physiology continue to inform contemporary research and medical practice, emphasizing the enduring relevance of his observations in the history of anatomical studies. Hippocrates significantly contributed to understanding the kidneys and urinary system, including the urethra. Furthermore, he recognized the tubes carrying urine from the kidneys to the bladder and the bladder's role in storing and expelling urine. However, his knowledge of blood vessels and the urethra remains limited. Hippocrates, a key figure in the development of clinical nephrology, outlined four renal diseases, including kidney colic, renal tuberculosis, renal vein thrombosis, bilateral papillary necrosis, and chronic suppurative renal infection. In addition, he also described bladder stones, urinary conditions like painful, difficult urination, incontinence, urinary retention, renal colic, and renal tuberculosis. Treatment for urinary disorders included warm applications, baths, plant-derived diuretics, diet, and incision over the kidneys. Urine symptoms included bubbles on the surface, colorless urine, and sudden increases of blood in urine. The Corpus Hippocraticum, a study of the urinary tract, has significantly contributed to urology, particularly in uroscopy and renal stone formation. The study of the urinary tract provides valuable insights into anatomy, physiology, etiology, and treatment of urological diseases. Hippocrates introduced the concept of high-risk operations, advising specialists to perform them and avoiding untrained healers. He differentiated between upper and lower urinary tract infections, identifying blood clots in urine as kidney discharge and bladder infections as bladder stones. This article highlights the fundamental contributions of Hippocrates to the field of nephrology and to the understanding of renal anatomy and shows how his teachings influenced later medical practices and advances in the understanding of renal function and pathology. This review aims to uncover the significance they hold in the historical literature, showcasing the historical impact of his pioneering work on the Tashrih-al-Nizam-e-Baul (Anatomy of Urinary System).

Plants in Menstrual Diseases: A Systematic Study from Italian Folk Medicine on Current Approaches.

Background: Plant-based remedies have been used since antiquity to treat menstrual-related diseases (MD). From the late nineteenth to the early to mid-twentieth century, Italian folk remedies to treat "women's diseases" were documented in a vast corpus of literature sources. Aim: The purpose of this paper is to bring to light the plant-based treatments utilized by Italian folk medicine to heal clinical manifestations of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea and menstrual disorders in an attempt to discuss these remedies from a modern pharmacological point of view. Moreover, we compare the medical applications described by Hippocrates with those utilized by Italian folk medicine to check if they result from a sort of continuity of use by over two thousand years. Results: Out of the 54 plants employed in Italian folk medicine, 25 (46.3%) were already documented in the pharmacopoeia of the Corpus Hippocraticum for treating MD. Subsequently, a detailed search of scientific data banks such as Medline and Scopus was undertaken to uncover recent results concerning bioactivities of the plant extracts to treat MD. About 26% of the plants used by Italian folk medicine, nowadays, have undergone human trials to assess their actual efficacy. At the same time, about 41% of these herbal remedies come back to in different countries. Conclusions: Active principles extracted from plants used by Italian folk healers could be a promising source of knowledge and represent strength candidates for future drug discovery for the management of MD.

“Eski Tıp” metni ve ampirik tıbbın kökenleri

OBJECTIVE: In our study, the relationship between medicine and philosophy, which are still in their infancy, will be analysed and the empirical understanding of medicine proposed against the rational methods of philosophy in the context of the text titled “Ancient Medicine” in the “Hippocratic Corpus” will be discussed. MATERIAL and METHODS: Academic research. RESULTS: The ancient origins of empirical medicine are investigated. CONCLUSION: The text entitled ‘Ancient Medicine’ in the Corpus Hippocraticum is the first known attempt to make medicine independent of philosophy as well as of mysticism and magic. Keywords: ancient Greek medicine, corpus hippocraticum, empirical medicine

Hippocrates: father of mini-invasive nasal surgery.

Hippocrates, a Greek physician during the fifth century BC., is often considered the father of medicine. The Corpus Hippocraticum comprising of 58 volumes was writing between 450 and 150 BC. The objective of our study was to detail the management of nasal polyps during this period. We read and analyzed all volumes of the Corpus Hippocraticum in French translation and extracted all passages dealing with nasal polyps (n = 6). Surgical procedures in the Corpus Hippocraticum are described in great detail. The first surgical strategy for the removal of nasal polyps was by mini-invasive nasal approach: the lopping method and the sponge method. We explain the two mini-invasive nasal approaches with drawings. The meticulously detailed observations of the corpus give us a precious insight into the early perception of diseases, their progression and early attempts of treatment.

The Meaning of ‘Spiritual’ as Integral Health: From Hippocrates of Kos to the Potamius of Lisbon

This article aims to analyze how the category ‘spiritual’ used by Hippocrates of Kos can help with a better understanding of the influence and reception of Hippocratic medicine the Christian self-understanding as a religion of healing, especially from the Hippocratic influence in Potamius of Lisbon, and at the same time this Christian understanding contributes to the desacralization of medicine as a medical art. For this purpose, it will be analyzed the category pneuma in the Hippocratic naturalism, and within the debate between the medical schools, Pneumatics and Empirics, around the various methods of treatment to maintain the dynamization of pneuma. With this, it is intended, then, to identify different forms of reception of Hippocrates in Christianity associated with the different perceptions that one has of the writings of the physician of Kos. Such contextualization aims to help understand the process of spiritualization of pneuma that paved the way for the radicalization of the Pauline duality between body and soul, as well as to identify another understanding of pneuma linked to the conception of stoic sympatheia and the reading of the empiricists of Hippocratic Naturalism, both present in the Christian reading of the Corpus Hippocraticum. In this sense, this article will take as an example the work of Potamius of Lisbon (4th century), in order to identify an epistemological model of spirituality and health that could works as a kind of antidote to the tendency towards spiritualization of the pneuma, to accentuate its aspect of integrating, vitalizing and unifying body and soul in a pneuma dynamism, connecting the notion of restoring the health of nature with the notion of Christian redemption.

Ethical practice of Homoeopathy from Indian perspective

Moral principles and ethics are essential and inseparable from medical practices. The father of Medicine, Hippocrates introduced the Corpus Hippocraticum in the last decades of the fifth century. Physicians have been starting their career by swearing the solemn oath called Hippocratic Oath from the Corpus Hippocraticum as Horkos (Oath), for ages. Ethics is an important branch of philosophy that examines rights and wrongs, and guides what needs to be done. Four principles are guiding in all situations, which are autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice in general. Homoeopathic practitioners also follow the ethics in general like allopathic physicians. The declaration and oath that the homoeopathic physicians swear at the time of registration is an added responsibility that is supreme. The Hahnemannian Oath guides Homoeopathic practitioners to take inspiration from Master Hahnemann's teachings and obtain the strength to believe in Homoeopathy. Ethical practice in Homoeopathy is determined keeping in view ‘the highest and the only mission’ for the homoeopathic physician as mentioned in the first aphorism of Organon of Medicine i.e., to restore the sick to health. Overall ethics guide all the practitioners of the medical system. A physician while rendering services to humanity should always perform duty with dignity. He/She should keep up the honour of his/her profession at all times.

Ethics of the Corpus Hippocraticum: Philosophical Foundations of a Contemporary Debate

The article deals with a contemporary debate on Hippocratic ethics. Both the opponents and proponents of Hippocratic medical ethics seem to ignore the complexity of the said ethical system. The ethics of the Corpus Hippocraticum can be properly understood only in relation to physiological, psychological, and other factors. Therefore, the ongoing debate only partially represents ethical issues, and a number of arguments in it cannot be considered as valid. Moreover, the complexity of Hippocratic ethics reveals that quite a few of its principles are still valid today and deserve to be further analyzed. In addition, some of its principles have been incontestably incorporated into contemporary medical ethics.

Heraclitus and Hippocrates: the Paradigm of the Elements

The article analyses the remaining fragments and testimonies of Heraclitean philosophy and their connection with Hippocratic medicine. It is claimed that both schools belong to the same philosophical-scientific paradigm of the elements. Therefore, theoretical insights of the school of Cos might well serve explaining complicated and often difficult to interpret Heraclitean thoughts. Moreover, it is plausible that parts of Corpus Hippocraticum were written under the influence of the Heraclitean philosophy and therefore its analysis and interpretative application allows us to partially reconstruct the fragmented Heraclitean ideas into the single unified system. The article uses comparative analysis of both thinking traditions in regard to psychological, ethical, physiological, cosmological, and medical ideas. Similarities in explaining human nature are revealed. It is shown that science (medicine) and philosophy in Antiquity use the same paradigmatic utterances to describe reality. Therefore, there are many mutual interconnecting principles between early philosophy and medicine.

Ciencia, Filosofía y Tekhne. La influencia presocrática en la filosofía biológica de los hipocráticos

In this article we want to study the influence of the pre-Socratic philosophy in the biological thinking of the Corpus Hippocraticum. We begin by defining what we understand by Hippocratic medicine, as well as its bifronte character (knowledge and “art”). Next, we draw a line of demarcation between scientific (or pre-scientific) knowledge and philosophical knowledge based on Gustavo Bueno’s Theory of Category Closure. From here we analyze the various presocratic schools of thought and their influences in the Corpus.

Heracles and epilepsy: the sacred disease.

Epilepsy is one of the most dreaded and terrifying human afflictions. One of the many names it has received was Sacred Disease, during Greek times. Heracles served as a source of the divine connotation that epilepsy received in ancient times, as he was one of the most important demigods in Greek mythology. However, several authors have attributed Heracles' actions to a seizure, including Hippocrates, who described the sacred disease on his "Corpus Hippocraticum." This paper reviewed some of the publications on the myth and content of the text of Hippocrates, in relation to the current knowledge of the disease.

The Hippocratic account of Mental Health: Humors and Human Temperament

Introduction: A quintessential element of Hippocratic medicine is treatment of mental diseases which was based on a detailed examination of the symptoms as well as the study of human physiology and final outcome of the diseases which is based on humoral theory.
 Purpose: The aim of the work is to highlight the contribution of Hippocrates to the study of mental illness based on his theory of humors
 Methodology: Our study consists of interpretations of the original text of Hippocrates including extensive observations of anatomy and physiology of human body based on humoral theory. Then the information was evaluated on the basis of modern literature in order to establish their validity. A major limitation of the research is the lack of a systemic methodology to screen the Hippocratic corpus for relevant passages which actually requires interdisciplinary research in order to determine which aspects of Hippocratic medicine can be developed.
 Results: In Corpus Hippocraticum, it is highlighting that maintaining a relative proportion of humors in human body (apart from maintaining health) regulates the human temperament and its behavioral manifestations. Hippocrates, has included in his work observations not only on human physiology and diseases but also studies the environmental and geographical impact on them, thus setting the stage for holistic approaches
 Conclusion: Summarizing, Hippocratic medicine and particularly his observations on mental disorders provides a clear picture of the methodology used by Hippocrates which can be a guide for the adoption of good practices for contemporary scholars and clinicians on their everyday practice

Dengue fever in the Corpus Hippocraticum.

Dengue fever (DF) is a globally significant infection which causes a range of severe and non-severe clinical manifestations. It is transmitted by mosquitoes of the Aedes genus (primarily Aedes aegypti, but also Aedes albopictus). In this letter, a possible DF epidemic on Thasos Island in Greece, which is described in the Book of Epidemics I of the Corpus Hippocraticum, is presented and analyzed. To my knowledge, it is the first report of DF in the history of medicine.

An innovative hippocratic cranial intervention for amaurosis in classical Greece

Background Amaurosis is the sudden and acute loss of sight. Followers of Hippocrates in ancient Greece described amaurosis as a symptom of several ophthalmological pathologies, such as tumours or trauma. To treat it, surgery often was performed. Methods The Corpus Hippocraticum, edited by Littré, was thoroughly studied. Results The Corpus Hippocraticum describes the surgical treatment for amaurosis, which involves drilling with specialized tools (i.e. trephines) into the affected area of the temporal bone. It was believed that this procedure would help release demonic spirits and balance the bodily humours. Physiology of the era assumed that fluids in the head sometimes exerted high pressure on the optical nerve and that this fluid needed to be alleviated. Conclusions Ancient Greeks studied cranial anatomy and understood the main principals of internal bleeding and inflammation. They treated some of the neurological symptoms that resulted from these conditions with surgery.

The first description of cholesteatoma by Hippocrate.

Although otolaryngology became a subspecialty only since the middle of the nineteenth century, many diseases of ENT system, their clinical symptoms, universality and potential seriousness have been described since over 3000years ago. Texts of the medical school of Cos and its founder Hippocrates (460-370 BC) collected in the Corpus Hippocraticum also contain multiple case reports and treatments for ear diseases. The aim of this study is to analyse an extract of one of Hippocrates' treatise, which apparently describes the first case of cholesteotoma. We analysed a case from Epidemic by Hippocrates (VII, V, 1-9) from its English translation. Analysis of the description of symptoms allows us to diagnose a complicated cholesteatoma with facial palsy and neuro-meningitis manifestation. The meticulously detailed observations of the corpus give us a precious insight into the early perception of diseases and their evolution. The study of its history is of high interest to the fields of medicine, especially otorhinolaryngology. It also highlights the diseases and the suffering the diseases have inflicted on mankind since antiquity.

The Pathophysiology and Therapy of Erectile Dysfunction in a Newly Discovered Treatise by Wolfgang Reichart (1486–circa 1547)

A newly-found treatise by Wolfgang Reichart (1486-circa 1547), town physician of Ulm, challenges the contemporary view that bewitchment as a cause of impotence defies any natural explanation. To understand the pathophysiological concept and therapy of erectile dysfunction in Reichart's treatise by examination of his sources and previous concepts. Source analysis of Reichart's treatise by comparison of the pathophysiological concepts and therapy of erectile dysfunction with original texts of the Corpus Hippocraticum (5th-3rd century BC) and Constantinus Africanus (11th century). By using rational thinking and medical knowledge mainly drawn from antiquity, especially Constantinus Africanus, Reichart shows that a supposed supernatural cause for impotence can be explained by reason and natural means. Reichart's treatise changes the view of bewitchment as cause of impotence. He makes eclectical use of previous concepts to explain his patient's condition. From the Middle Ages on, bewitchment was accepted as a cause for erectile dysfunction. Usually, physicians of that time accepted this etiology and advised a treatment based on theological concepts. Reichart challenges this view by emphasizing reason and medical knowledge as crucial for treating the patient, rejecting supernatural treatment approaches. In the 16th century, a type of rational thinking and medical knowledge emerges, which puts supernatural explanations into question and aims at treating patients with natural means. The analysis of Reichart's treatise is a much-needed contribution to understanding the historic development of pathophysiological concepts of and therapeutic measures for impotence, which is yet underresearched.

Melissa officinalis ssp. altissima extracts: A therapeutic approach targeting psoriasis in mice.

Melissa officinalis L., commonly known as lemon balm, is one of the most well known edible and medicinal plants of the Lamiaceae family. It is quoted in almost all known medical treatises, from Antiquity up to modern era, such as Corpus Hippocraticum, Dioscorides' De Materia Medica and later on in medieval medical manuscripts and Pharmacopoeias. Actually, it is widely used as herbal medicine for the relief of mild symptoms of mental stress, to aid sleep and for symptomatic treatment of mild gastrointestinal complaints including bloating and flatulence. In Greece, the empirical physicians "vikoyiatroi" recommended the decoction of dry flowers and leaves to treat tracheobronchitis, hysteria, epilepsy, heart arrhythmias, as hypnotic and against skin disorders. The present study was conducted to investigate the potential beneficial effects in psoriasis in mice of M. officinalis ssp. altissima and to carry out the chemical analysis in order to reveal its main bioactive secondary metabolites. Non polar and polar extracts of M. officinalis ssp. altissima aerial parts were prepared by using dichloromethane and methanol, successively; in addition a decoction was made upon oral information by local users in Crete, where the plant was collected. All three preparations were chemically analyzed in order to isolate their main constituents. Chemical structures of all isolated compounds were determined by 1D, 2D-NMR and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Furthermore, the antioxidant potential of extracts and decoction was evaluated through DPPH radical scavenging capability. The in vivo in mice anti-psoriatic efficacy of all preparations was estimated through clinical and histopathological assessment and measurements of TEWL and hydration. The dichloromethane extract yielded ursolic acid, 2α-hydroxy-ursolic acid, pomolic acid, 3β-stearyloxy-urs-12-ene, oleanolic acid, noropacursane and campesterol; the methanol extract afforded rosmarinic acid and methyl rosmarinate, while from the decoction caffeic acid, 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)lactic acid and rosmarinic acid were isolated. The psoriasis evaluation, based on PASI score, photodocumentation and histopathological estimation showed that the decoction primarily and the dichloromethane extract secondly could significantly contribute to psoriasis treatment. The decoction seems able to reestablish skin physiology by decreasing dryness and enhancing skin barrier function. Moreover, the decoction showed the best antioxidant activity, while the dichloromethane extract the weakest. The triterpene derivatives of the dichloromethane extract are likely to be responsible for its anti-psoriatic activity. The abundant polyphenolic load of the decoction contributes to its high antioxidant activity and the most effective results against psoriasis. The anti-psoriatic activity of the decoction confirmed the traditional use of this plant as antioxidant, wound healing and skin barrier repair agent.

Nie tylko „O sztuce lekarskiej” w wybranych pismach Corpus Hippocraticum

According to the researchers, the most intriguing and fascinating work at the Corpus Hippocraticum is the treatise De prisca medicina. It consists of 24 parts in which Hippocrates argues that the human organism is a blend of various substances or humors. Having set forth humoral theory, Hippocrates criticizes the hypothesis about the causes of diseases independent of this theory. Hippocrates medicine, due to the way it is practiced, should be treated as τέχνη, and this term can be translated as proficiency, craftsmanship, skills, craft, and art. Medicine should not use hypotheses or generalizations but should be based on experience and research. The doctor was a researcher, but above all a craftsman, accompanied by students and other doctors, with whom he analyzed every case of disease.

The Hippocratic Doctrine of “the Acute Brain Suffering” as the Brain Stroke

Background: The ancient Greek term "apoplexy" as is repeatedly mentioned by the Hippocratic School of Medicine, included a cluster of diseases, mainly those concerning the central nervous system. The term was wrongfully infiltrated in Western European medicine as synonymous to what is called today a "stroke" of the brain. Objective: While in "Corpus Hippocraticum" the definition of the stroke was rather ambiguous; our study aims to unveil those fragments referring to it, in order to compose the Hippocratic theory of what it stood for "Acute Brain Suffering" (Greek: Οξείες Οδύνες του Εγκεφάλου) during the Classical era of ancient Greece. Method: A bibliographic research of the "Hippocratic Collection" was conducted during our study in order to connect all fragments from the original ancient Greek text, and reconstruct the "Hippocratic Stroke Theory". Three editions have been used as reference. French edition by Littré, and two Greek ones by Kaktos and Pournaropoulos. Results: The "Acute Brain Suffering" seems to be the entity we call "Stroke" in modern clinical practice. Edema (collection of fluids-humours theory) was considered to be the most significant element which though could have been addressed by a cranial decompression for the symptoms to improve. The symptoms in question were, acute brain pain, diplopia, vertigo, ataxia, saliva, and urine loss as well as feces incontinence. Conclusion: Both therapeutic approach and symptomatology exhibited significant similarities with the modern concept of the stroke. The Hippocratic School was a scientifically advanced sect of medicophilosophers who promoted global medicine.

"Díaita": Estilo de vida y alteridad en el Sócrates de Jenofonte”

En el presente artículo analizaremos el estilo de vida atribuido a Sócrates por Jenofonte. El trabajo parte de la definición de conceptos propios de la medicina como díaita o dýnamis desde los pitagóricos y los presocráticos hasta el Corpus Hippocraticum. A continuación, estudiaremos la influencia de estas ideas en la construcción de un modelo universal de virtud y liderazgo en torno a Sócrates y otras figuras.