Core Relational Themes Research Articles

Development and Validation of an Ability Measure of Emotion Understanding: The Core Relational Themes of Emotion (CORE) Test.

Emotion understanding (EU) ability is associated with healthy social functioning and psychological well-being. Across three studies, we develop and present validity evidence for the Core Relational Themes of Emotions (CORE) Test. The test measures people's ability to identify relational themes underlying 19 positive and negative emotions. Relational themes are consistencies in the meaning people assign to emotional experiences. In Study 1, we developed and refined the test items employing a literature review, expert panel, and confusion matrix with a demographically diverse sample. Correctness criteria were determined using theory and prior research, and a progressive (degrees of correctness) paradigm was utilized to score the test. In Study 2, the CORE demonstrated high internal consistency and a confirmatory factor analysis supported the unidimensional factor structure. The CORE showed evidence of convergence with established EU ability measures and divergent relationships with verbal intelligence and demographic characteristics, supporting its construct validity. Also, the CORE was associated with less relational conflict. In Study 3, the CORE was associated with more adaptive and less maladaptive coping and higher well-being on multiple indicators. A set of effects remained, accounting for variance from a widely used EU test, supporting the CORE's incremental validity. Theoretical and methodological contributions are discussed.

The linguistic fallacy & the complex content of emotion

ABSTRACT Some argue that emotions represent so-called core relational themes. A core relational theme describes a relation between a particular event and an organism’s well-being. For instance, the core relational theme of anger is ‘a demeaning offense against me and mine’. I argue that a core relational theme is a summary or generalization of a more complex mental content. Defenders of the Simple Core Relational Theme View reject the idea that emotional content is complex. Instead, they argue that the content of emotion simply consists of a core relational theme. I argue that this view commits the linguistic fallacy: it confuses a theory of emotion categorization with a theory of emotional content.

Living with pathological narcissism: core conflictual relational themes within intimate relationships

BackgroundPathological narcissism is a severe mental health condition that includes disturbances in interpersonal functioning. Interpersonal difficulties by those affected include aggressive, domineering, cold and coercive behaviours which often result in strong negative reactions from others. We sought to examine the moment-to-moment patterns that emerge within close relationships between intimate partners and family members.MethodsParticipants (N = 15) were romantic partners (73.3%) and family members (26.6%) in a close and long-term relationship (+ 10 years) with an individual with pathological narcissism. Participants told verbatim relationship narratives involving five narrative interactions with their relative with pathological narcissism and five narrative interactions with others. Transcripts were coded using the using Core Conflictual Relationship Theme method. Participants also completed three versions of the Relationship Questionnaire, reporting on 1. their relationship style ‘in general’, 2. their relationship style ‘with their relative’ and 3. the relationship style of their relative.ResultsA total of 133 relationship episodes were analysed, comprising 783 components (wishes, responses of others and responses of self). While the identified wishes (e.g., for love, for support) were consistent between relative and non-relative narratives, there was significantly higher disharmony and lower harmony in narratives involving relatives with pathological narcissism. Described disharmony in these relationships involved the relative’s rejecting, subjugating and attacking behaviours, and participants rejecting and withdrawing behaviours. There was a prominent deactivation of participants attachment system when interacting with their relative with pathological narcissism, endorsing predominately dismissing relationship styles. Individuals with pathological narcissism were similarly rated as predominately dismissing.ConclusionsTogether, these results reflect the cycles of interpersonal dysfunction for individuals with pathological narcissism and their partners and family members. Treatment implications point to the risk of therapists withdrawing and dismissing a patient with high pathological narcissism in the countertransference. Strategies to monitor and manage these core relational themes in treatment remain a challenge.

Insecurity narratives and implicit emotional appeals in French competing populisms

The salience of security concerns has dramatically increased across Europe and a growing body of research converges on their acknowledgement as contributing factors to populist success. As the empirical focus of existing research is on the populist right and on negative emotionality, this paper questions to what extent the populism-(in)security nexus is indeed distinctive to the right and predominantly underpinned by fear-based appeals. By adopting a novel typology of insecurity-framing and a qualitative strategy that infers emotions from core relational themes, the paper explores the implicit emotional content of populist insecurity narratives in France, looking at campaign communication from Marine Le Pen and Jean-Luc Mélenchon. The article offers three contributions. First, by mapping which emotions underpin their insecurity narratives, it illustrates how these populist actors perform ‘emotional governance’, addressing the number of ontological insecurities generally linked to populist voting. Second, it shows that not only exclusionary but also inclusionary populists engage with processes of threat framing and do so with overlapping overarching themes. Finally, it proposes a qualitative approach that captures the holistic meaning of emotions via the methodological use of core relational themes, complementing word-based analyses.

Explaining embodied emotions – with and without representations

Embodied accounts have offered a theoretical framework in which emotions are understood to be patterned embodied responses that are about core relational themes. Some authors argue that this intentionality should be understood in terms of some kind of non-conceptual representation format, while others suggest a radical enactivist framework that takes emotions to be intentional but not representational. In this paper I will argue that the abstract nature of the core relational themes emotions are about and the interrelatedness of emotions with each other and with other mental states speak in favor of emotions being representations.

A Field Study of Discrete Emotions: Athletes' Cognitive Appraisals During Competition

Purpose: Cognitive-motivational-relational theory (CMRT) emphasizes that cognitive appraisal components and core relational themes (in which the 6 separate appraisal judgments are brought together as 1) are the proximal determinants of athletes' emotions. This study aimed to explore appraisals associated with discrete emotions experienced by athletes during competition by adopting a naturalistic, qualitative video-assisted approach. Method: Thirty self-confrontation interviews were conducted with 11 national table-tennis players. Qualitative inductive and deductive content analyses were conducted on the participants' transcripts. Results: Content analyses suggested that primary and secondary appraisal components (goal relevance, goal congruence, ego involvement, blame or credit, coping potential, and future expectations) were associated with a range of positive and negative discrete emotions: self-, other-, and environmental-oriented anger, anxiety, discouragement, disappointment, disgust, joy, serenity, relief, hope, and pride. Hierarchical content analyses also provided some support for the concept of core relational themes. Conclusion: Findings of the present study are consistent with a CMRT approach and highlight that primary and secondary appraisals as well as core relational themes are associated with discrete emotions experienced by athletes while competing. Limitations and practical applications of this study are discussed.

Ain’t sure who to blame: Metacognitive influences on appraisal–emotion processes

In this research, we propose that emotions are affected not only by appraisals, but also by a metacognitive sense of confidence versus doubt over the appraisals. Focusing on core-relational themes (CRTs), higher-order appraisals comprising the combined meaning of several appraisals, we predicted and found evidence, over two studies, that the effect of a CRT on the corresponding emotion is stronger if one feels confident about the validity of the CRT compared to feeling doubtful. In Study 1, CRT was manipulated by recall and in Study 2, CRT was manipulated in vivo. Both designs produced consistent support for the hypotheses. These findings demonstrate the need to consider metacognitive processes in understanding the effects of appraisals on emotions.

Investigating the cognitive precursors of emotional response to cancer stress: Re‐testing Lazarus's transactional model

Lazarus's Transactional Model of stress and coping underwent significant theoretical development through the 1990s to better incorporate emotional reactions to stress with their appraisal components. Few studies have robustly explored the full model. This study aimed to do so within the context of a major life event: cancer diagnosis. A repeated measures design was used whereby data were collected using self-report questionnaire at baseline (soon after diagnosis), and 3- and 6-month follow-up. A total of 160 recently diagnosed cancer patients were recruited (mean time since diagnosis = 46 days). Their mean age was 64.2 years. Data on appraisals, core-relational themes, and emotions were collected. Data were analysed using both Spearman's correlation tests and multivariate regression modelling. Longitudinal analysis demonstrated weak correlation between change scores of theoretically associated components and some emotions correlated more strongly with cognitions contradicting theoretical expectations. Cross-sectional multivariate testing of the ability of cognitions to explain variance in emotion was largely theory inconsistent. Although data support the generic structure of the Transactional Model, they question the model specifics. Larger scale research is needed encompassing a wider range of emotions and using more complex statistical testing. WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS SUBJECT?: • Stress processes are transactional and coping outcome is informed by both cognitive appraisal of the stressor and the individual's emotional response (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). • Lazarus (1999) made specific hypotheses about which particular stress appraisals would determine which emotional response, but only a small number of these relationships have been robustly investigated. • Previous empirical testing of this theory has been limited by design and statistical limitations. WHAT DOES THIS STUDY ADD?: • This study empirically investigates the cognitive precedents of a much larger range of emotional outcomes than has previously been attempted in the literature. • Support for the model at a general level is established: this study demonstrates that both primary and secondary appraisals, and core-relational themes are important variables in explaining variance in emotional outcome. • The specific hypotheses proposed by Lazarus (1999) are not, however, supported: using data-driven approaches we demonstrate that equally high levels of variance can be explained using entirely different cognitive appraisals than those hypothesized.

What is shared, what is different? Core relational themes and expressive displays of eight positive emotions

Understanding positive emotions' shared and differentiating features can yield valuable insight into the structure of positive emotion space and identify emotion states, or aspects of emotion states, that are most relevant for particular psychological processes and outcomes. We report two studies that examined core relational themes (Study 1) and expressive displays (Study 2) for eight positive emotion constructs—amusement, awe, contentment, gratitude, interest, joy, love, and pride. Across studies, all eight emotions shared one quality: high positive valence. Distinctive core relational theme and expressive display patterns were found for four emotions—amusement, awe, interest, and pride. Gratitude was associated with a distinct core relational theme but not an expressive display. Joy and love were each associated with a distinct expressive display but their core relational themes also characterised pride and gratitude, respectively. Contentment was associated with a distinct expressive display but not a core relational theme. The implications of this work for the study of positive emotion are discussed.

Understanding emotional responses to breast/ovarian cancer genetic risk assessment: An applied test of a cognitive theory of emotion

This study explored whether Smith and Lazarus' (1990, 1993) cognitive theory of emotion could predict emotional responses to an emotionally ambiguous real-life situation. Questionnaire data were collected from 145 women upon referral for cancer genetic risk assessment. These indicated a mixed emotional reaction of both positive and negative emotions to the assessment. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the hypothesised models explained between 20% and 33% of the variance of anxiety, hope and gratitude scores, but only 10% of the variance for challenge scores. For the previously unmodelled emotion of relief, 31% of the variance was explained by appraisals and core relational themes. The findings help explain why emotional responses to cancer genetic risk assessment vary and suggest that improving the accuracy of individuals' beliefs and expectations about the assessment process may help subsequent adaptation to risk information.

Generating nonnegative attitudes among parents of depressed adolescents: The power of empathy, concern, and positive regard

Parental negativity is associated with the onset and maintenance of adolescent depression. Reducing parental negativity is a primary focus of family-based treatments for this clinical population. This study examined the association between therapist relationship-facilitating and attachment-oriented interventions and the valence (i.e., positivity–negativity) of parents’ attitudes toward their depressed adolescent in a sample of 13 sessions of attachment-based family therapy. Lag sequential analyses revealed that in good alliance sessions relationship-facilitating interventions, such as empathy and positive regard for the parent, were associated with parents’ nonnegative attitudes toward their adolescent in the five speech turns subsequent to the intervention. Attachment-oriented interventions, such as relational reframes, addressing core relational themes, and highlighting vulnerable emotions, were also intermittently associated with nonnegative parental attitudes in good alliance sessions. No such effects were evident for the comparison interventions. This study represents a first step in the process of testing specific strategies for reducing parental negativity in family therapy.

Antecedents of Emotions in Elite Athletes

Cognitive motivational relational theory suggests that cognitive appraisals or core relational themes (a composite summary of appraisal components) represent the proximal determinants of athletes' emotions. Semistructured interviews with 12 current international athletes (1 woman and 11 men) ages 19 to 37 years (M age = 27 years, SD = 6.03), representing a range of sports (badminton, golf, rugby union, athletics, archery, sailing, and snooker) explored the association between athletes' appraisals and emotions. Concurrent inductive and deductive content analyses suggested that primary and secondary appraisal components (goal relevance, goal congruence, ego-involvement, blame/credit, coping potential, future expectations) were associated with a range of emotions: anger, anxiety, guilt, happiness, pride, relief, sadness, and shame. A hierarchical content analysis provided some support for Lazarus' (1991) core relational themes. Limitations and applications of this study are discussed.

Two Views of Emotional Perception: Some Empirical Suggestions

One stream in contemporary philosophical and psychological study of the emotions argues that they are perceptual capacities (e.g., Prinz 2004). For instance, Jesse Prinz has recently defended the view that emotions are perceptions of bodily changes and, via these, of “core relational themes” (2004, 224-25). Core relational themes are, roughly, relations an individual has to his/her environment that pertain to that individual's welfare (2004, 15-16). The present project is to compare and contrast two possible models of emotional perception. The central difference between these models is the notion of modularity that they use, and the corresponding overall view of the nature of the mind. I will suggest some empirical tests that might adjudicate between these different kinds of emotional modularity, and hence between these two models of emotional perception. I will conclude with some remarks about the extent of the relevance of this issue.

BRIEF REPORT

Two studies are reported. In the first, 69 undergraduate students were asked to complete a questionnaire in which they reported one stressful incident they had experienced in the previous four weeks, and the appraisals, core relational themes, and emotions they experienced at the time. Without warning, one week later they were asked to consider the same incident and report their appraisals and emotions. Only scores on two of 41 variables differed across occasions. Data from the first time of completion were added to those of another group of students to form a total sample of 156 participants. These data were then used to test the model of appraisals, core relational themes, and emotion of Smith and colleagues (e.g. Smith and Lazarus, 1993). The model was tested on four emotions: anger, guilt, anxiety, and sadness, and accounted for between eighteen and forty eight percent of the explained variance of each measure. Contrary to the study's hypotheses, emotion-focussed coping potential added to the variance explained in measures of guilt and anger. The results are discussed in the context of the cognition-emotion literature.

The Core Emotion Themes of Conjugal Loss

Previous studies have associated emotion and appraisal with long-term bereavement outcome. The present study extended this research by coding conjugal bereavement narratives for core relational themes (CRT) that served as emotional summaries of unique combinations of appraisal features. A range of CRTs was evidenced at 6 months after loss, with positive CRTs, such as love/affection and pride, occurring most frequently. As a way to examine competing models of coping with loss, CRTs were grouped by goal-congruence (positive/negative) and appraisal features (self/interpersonal) into four thematic categories, and they were compared with 6-, 14-, and 25-month outcome. Results contradicted the traditional “grief work” perspective, but they were consistent with the alternative view that recovery is fostered by identity continuity and a continued emotional bond with the deceased. With initial symptoms and Dyadic Adjustment Scale scores controlled, enhanced self themes (e.g., self-pride) and interpersonal affirmation themes (e.g., pride in the deceased) were each associated with improved functioning over time, whereas interpersonal discord themes (e.g., anger at the deceased) were associated with chronic grief.

Repressive coping style and the architecture of emotion-related memories: is their relationship that simple?

The present study re-examines the relationship between repressive coping style and the architecture of emotion-related memories by introducing methodological improvements in the elicitation of these memories. Participants were classified into four repressive coping groups according to the Taylor Manifest Anxiety scale and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale. They were then asked to recall personal experiences related to five core relational themes attempting to elicit positive and negative emotions and to rate how they felt in each situation. Results indicated that differences in the architecture of emotion-related memories among the four repressive coping groups depended on the type of the elicited memory. The discussion emphasizes the complexity of the relationship between repressive coping style and the architecture of emotion-related memories and suggests an expansion of the concept of repression.

Appraisal components, core relational themes, and the emotions

Abstract This study experimentally tests the contributions of specific appraisals, considered at both molecular (appraisal components) and molar (core relational themes) levels of analysis, to the experience of four emotions (anger, guilt, fear/anxiety, and sadness) using a two-stage directed imagery task. In Stage 1, subjects imagined themselves in scenarios designed to evoke appraisals hypothesised to produce either anger or sadness. In Stage 2, the scenarios unfolded in time to produce a second manipulation designed to systematically evoke the appraisals hypothesised to produce each of the four emotions under study. The results provided substantial support for the theoretically specified appraisal-emotion relationships for anger, guilt, and fear/ anxiety. However, support for the predictions for sadness was weaker, partially due to ineffective manipulation of the relevant appraisals. Implications for the further development and testing of emotion theory are discussed.

Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion.

The 2 main tasks of this article are 1st, to examine what a theory of emotion must do and basic issues that it must address. These include definitional issues, whether or not physiological activity should be a defining attribute, categorical versus dimensional strategies, the reconciliation of biological universals with sociocultural sources of variability, and a classification of the emotions. The 2nd main task is to apply an analysis of appraisal patterns and the core relational themes that they produce to a number of commonly identified emotions. Anger, anxiety, sadness, and pride (to include 1 positive emotion) are used as illustrations. The purpose is to show the capability of a cognitive-motivational-relational theory to explain and predict the emotions. The role of coping in emotion is also discussed, and the article ends with a response to criticisms of a phenomenological, folk-theory outlook.