Core-mantle Boundary Heat Flux Research Articles

Author Correction: Regional stratification at the top of Earth’s core due to core–mantle boundary heat flux variations

Author Correction: Regional stratification at the top of Earth’s core due to core–mantle boundary heat flux variations

On the impact of true polar wander on heat flux patterns at the core–mantle boundary

Abstract. The heat flux across the core–mantle boundary (CMB) is a fundamental variable for Earth evolution and internal dynamics. Seismic tomography provides access to seismic heterogeneities in the lower mantle, which can be related to present-day thermal heterogeneities. Alternatively, mantle convection models can be used to either infer past CMB heat flux or to produce statistically realistic CMB heat flux patterns in self-consistent models. Mantle dynamics modifies the inertia tensor of the Earth, which implies a rotation of the Earth with respect to its spin axis, a phenomenon called true polar wander (TPW). This rotation must be taken into account to link the dynamics of the mantle to the dynamics of the core. In this study, we explore the impact of TPW on the CMB heat flux over long timescales (∼1 Gyr) using two recently published mantle convection models: one model driven by a plate reconstruction and a second that self-consistently produces a plate-like behaviour. We compute the geoid in both models to correct for TPW. In the plate-driven model, we compute a total geoid and a geoid in which lateral variations of viscosity and density are suppressed above 350 km depth. An alternative to TPW correction is used for the plate-driven model by simply repositioning the model in the original paleomagnetic reference frame of the plate reconstruction. The average TPW rates range between 0.4 and 1.8° Myr−1, but peaks up to 10° Myr−1 are observed. We find that in the plate-driven mantle convection model used in this study, the maximum inertia axis produced by the model does not show a long-term consistency with the position of the magnetic dipole inferred from paleomagnetism. TPW plays an important role in redistributing the CMB heat flux, notably at short timescales (≤10 Myr). Those rapid variations modify the latitudinal distribution of the CMB heat flux, which is known to affect the stability of the magnetic dipole in geodynamo simulations. A principal component analysis (PCA) is computed to obtain the dominant CMB heat flux pattern in the different cases. These heat flux patterns are representative of the mantle convection cases studied here and can be used as boundary conditions for geodynamo models.

Regionally-triggered geomagnetic reversals

Systematic studies of numerical dynamo simulations reveal that the transition from dipole-dominated non-reversing fields to models that exhibit reversals occurs when inertial effects become strong enough. However, the inertial force is expected to play a secondary role in the force balance in Earth’s outer core. Here we show that reversals in numerical dynamo models with heterogeneous outer boundary heat flux inferred from lower mantle seismic anomalies appear when the amplitude of heat flux heterogeneity is increased. The reversals are triggered at regions of large heat flux in which strong small-scale inertial forces are produced, while elsewhere inertial forces are substantially smaller. When the amplitude of heat flux heterogeneity is further increased so that in some regions sub-adiabatic conditions are reached, regional skin effects suppress small-scale magnetic fields and the tendency to reverse decreases. Our results reconcile the need for inertia for reversals with the theoretical expectation that the inertial force remains secondary in the force balance. Moreover, our results highlight a non-trivial non-monotonic behavior of the geodynamo in response to changes in the amplitude of the core-mantle boundary heat flux heterogeneity.

Changes in core–mantle boundary heat flux patterns throughout the supercontinent cycle

SUMMARY The Earth’s magnetic field is generated by a dynamo in the outer core and is crucial for shielding our planet from harmful radiation. Despite the established importance of the core–mantle boundary (CMB) heat flux as driver for the dynamo, open questions remain about how heat flux heterogeneities affect the magnetic field. Here, we explore the distribution of the CMB heat flux on Earth and its changes over time using compressible global 3-D mantle convection models in the geodynamic modelling software ASPECT. We discuss the use of the consistent boundary flux method as a tool to more accurately compute boundary heat fluxes in finite element simulations and the workflow to provide the computed heat flux patterns as boundary conditions in geodynamo simulations. Our models use a plate reconstruction throughout the last 1 billion years—encompassing the complete supercontinent cycle—to determine the location and sinking speed of subducted plates. The results show how mantle upwellings and downwellings create localized heat flux anomalies at the CMB that can vary drastically over Earth’s history and depend on the properties and evolution of the lowermost mantle as well as the surface subduction zone configuration. The distribution of hot and cold structures at the CMB changes throughout the supercontinent cycle in terms of location, shape and number, indicating that these structures fluctuate and might have looked very differently in Earth’s past. We estimate the resulting amplitude of spatial heat flux variations, expressed by the ratio of peak-to-peak amplitude to average heat flux, q*, to be at least 2. However, depending on the material properties and the adiabatic heat flux out of the core, q* can easily reach values >30. For a given set of material properties, q* generally varies by 30–50 per cent over time. Our results have implications for understanding the Earth’s thermal evolution and the stability of its magnetic field over geological timescales. They provide insights into the potential effects of the mantle on the magnetic field and pave the way for further exploring questions about the nucleation of the inner core and the past state of the lowermost mantle.

Inferring the relationship between core-mantle heat flux and seismic tomography from mantle convection simulations

The heat flux pattern at Earth’s core-mantle boundary (CMB) imposes a heterogeneous boundary condition on core dynamics that may profoundly affect the geodynamo. Owing to the expected temperature dependence of seismic velocities, this pattern is classically approximated as proportional to the lowermost layer of seismic tomography models for the global mantle. Two biases however undermine such a simple linear relationship: 1) other contributions than thermal (compositional and mineralogical) influence seismic velocities and 2) the radial average is inherent to tomographic models whereas the local thermal state at the CMB is relevant for the heat flux. We analyze here simulations of thermochemical mantle convection where, owing to their spatial characteristics, specific mantle components are readily identified: hot thermochemical piles (TCPs), “normal” mantle (NM) and, when post-peroskite (pPv) is included, a cold region where this phase is present. Synthetic seismic velocities (i.e. from the mantle simulations) are then computed based on thermal, compositional and mineralogical sensitivities. A formalism to infer the CMB heat flux from these seismic shear velocity anomalies is derived. In this formalism, within each mantle population (i.e. TCPs, NM or pPv) the CMB heat flux vs. seismic anomalies follows a unique fitting function. The transition from one mantle population to another is marked by a jump in the seismic anomaly, i.e. a range of seismic anomalies in between two mantle populations corresponds to a similar CMB heat flux. Applying our formalism to the seismic anomalies from the mantle convection simulations provides far superior fits than the commonly used linear fits. The results highlight reduced negative heat flux anomalies beneath large low shear velocity provinces (LLSVPs), while positive heat flux anomalies are enhanced, both with respect to the classical linear interpretation.

Electrical resistivity of the Fe–Si–S ternary system: implications for timing of thermal convection shutdown in the lunar core

The composition of the lunar core has been suggested to be Fe-rich with varying amounts of lighter elements, such as Si and S. Presence of Si and S affects electrical and thermal transport properties and thus influences core thermal processes and evolution. Paleomagnetic observations constrain a high intensity magnetic field that ceases shortly after formation of the moon (~ 3.5–4.2 Ga year ago), and thermal convection in the core may contribute to generation of this field. In this study, the electrical resistivity of Fe-14 wt% Si-3 wt% S was measured in both solid and molten states at pressures up to 5 GPa and thermal conductivity was calculated via the Wiedemann–Franz Law from the electrical measurements. The results were used to estimate the adiabatic conductive heat flux of a molten Fe-14 wt% Si-3 wt% S lunar core and compared to a Fe-2-17 wt% Si lunar core, which showed that thermal convection of either core composition shuts down within the duration of the high intensity magnetic field: (1) 3.17–3.72 Ga year ago for a Fe-14 wt% Si-3 wt% S core; and (ii) 3.38–3.86 Ga years ago for a Fe-2-17 wt% Si core. Results favouring compatibility of these core compositions with paleomagnetic observations are strongly dependent on the temperature of the core-mantle boundary and time-dependent mantle-side heat flux.

Scaling Laws for Regional Stratification at the Top of Earth's Core

AbstractSeismic and geomagnetic observations have been used to argue both for and against a global stratified layer at the top of Earth's outer core. Recently, we used numerical models of turbulent thermal convection to show that imposed lateral variations in core‐mantle boundary (CMB) heat flow can give rise to regional lenses of stratified fluid at the top of the core while the bulk of the core remains actively convecting. Here, we develop theoretical scaling laws to extrapolate the properties of regional stratified lenses measured in simulations to the conditions of Earth's core. We estimate that regional stratified lenses in Earth's core have thicknesses of up to a few hundred kilometres and Brunt‐Väisälä frequencies of hours, consistent with independent observational constraints. The location, thickness, and strength of the stratified regions would change over geological time scales in response to the slowly evolving CMB heat flux heterogeneity imposed by mantle convection.

A model for the geomagnetic field reversal rate and constraints on the heat flux variations at the core-mantle boundary

A striking feature of many natural magnetic fields generated by dynamo action is the occurrence of polarity reversals. Paleomagnetic measurements revealed that the Earth’s magnetic field has been characterised by few hundred stochastic polarity switches during its history. The rate of reversals changes in time, maybe obeying some underlying regular pattern. While chaotic dynamical systems can describe the short-term behaviour of the switches of the Earth’s magnetic polarity, modelling the long-term variations of the reversal rate is somewhat problematic, as they occur on timescales of tens to hundreds of millions of years, of the order of mantle convection timescales. By investigating data of geomagnetic reversal rates, we find the presence of cycles with variable frequency and show that the transition towards periods where reversals do not occur for tens of million years (superchrons) can be described by a second-order phase transition that we interpret to be driven by variations of the heat flux at the core-mantle boundary (CMB). The model allows us to extract from the reversal sequence quantitative information on the susceptibility of the reversal rate caused by changes in the CMB heat flux amplitude, thus providing direct information on the deep inner layers of the Earth.

Low geomagnetic field strength during End-Cretaceous Deccan volcanism and whole mantle convection

Knowledge about long-term variation of the geomagnetic dipole field remains in its nascent stage because of the paucity of reliable experimental data over geological periods. Here, we present the first robust experimental data from the largest Cretaceous flood basalt province on Earth, the ~65–66 Ma Deccan basalt within a thick (1250 m) unbiased stratigraphic section down to the basement, recovered from a drill hole of the Koyna Deep Scientific Drilling Project in the Western Ghats, India. Critical analysis of the result along with similar results of the Cretaceous age find that (i) the dipole moment during the end Cretaceous Deccan eruption is the lowest in whole of Cretaceous (ii) dipole moment at the onset/termination of the Cretaceous Normal Superchron is apparently lower relative to that in mid-superchron, however, such differences cannot be deciphered in shorter polarities probably because of insufficient time to develop recognizable variations (iii) inverse relation between dipole moment and reversal rate is lacking and (iv) a cause and effect relation between core-mantle boundary heat flux and low dipole moment that appears to be the principle governing factor in forming the Large Igneous Provinces on the surface of earth.

Regional stratification at the top of Earth's core due to core–mantle boundary heat flux variations

Earth’s magnetic field is generated by turbulent motion in its fluid outer core. Although the bulk of the outer core is vigorously convecting and well mixed, some seismic, geomagnetic and geodynamic evidence suggests that a global stably stratified layer exists at the top of Earth’s core. Such a layer would strongly influence thermal, chemical and momentum exchange across the core–mantle boundary and thus have important implications for the dynamics and evolution of the core. Here we argue that the relevant scenario is not global stratification, but rather regional stratification arising solely from the lateral variations in heat flux at the core–mantle boundary. Using our extensive suite of numerical simulations of the dynamics of the fluid core with heterogeneous core–mantle boundary heat flux, we predict that thermal regional inversion layers extend hundreds of kilometres into the core under anomalously hot regions of the lowermost mantle. Although the majority of the outermost core remains actively convecting, sufficiently large and strong regional inversion layers produce a one-dimensional temperature profile that mimics a globally stratified layer below the core–mantle boundary—an apparent thermal stratification despite the average heat flux across the core–mantle boundary being strongly superadiabatic.

Lowermost mantle thermal conductivity constrained from experimental data and tomographic models

SUMMARY Heat transfer through Earth's mantle is sensitive to mantle thermal conductivity and its variations. Thermal conductivities of lower mantle minerals, bridgmanite (Bm) and ferropericlase (Fp), depend on pressure, temperature, and composition. Because temperature and composition are expected to strongly vary in the deep mantle, thermal conductivity may also vary laterally. Here, we compile self-consistent data on lattice thermal conductivities of Bm and Fp at high pressure to model lower mantle thermal conductivity and map its possible lateral variations. Importantly, our data set allows us to quantify the influence of iron content on mantle conductivity. At the bottom of the mantle, the thermal conductivity for a pyrolitic mantle calculated along an adiabat with potential temperature 2000 K is equal 8.6 W m–1 K–1. Using 3-D thermochemical models from probabilistic tomography, which include variations in temperature, iron content, and bridgmanite fraction, we then calculate possible maps of conductivity anomalies at the bottom of the mantle. In regions known as low shear-wave velocity provinces, thermal conductivity is reduced by up to 26 per cent compared to average mantle, which may impact mantle dynamics in these regions. A simple analysis of threshold and saturation effects related to the iron content shows that our estimates of thermal conductivity may be considered as upper bounds. Quantifying these effects more precisely however requires additional mineral physics measurements. Finally, we estimate variations in core–mantle boundary heat flux, and find that that these variations are dominated by lateral temperature anomalies and are only partly affected by changes in thermal conductivity.

Preferred locations of weak surface field in numerical dynamos with heterogeneous core–mantle boundary heat flux: consequences for the South Atlantic Anomaly

Preferred locations of weak surface field in numerical dynamos with heterogeneous core–mantle boundary heat flux: consequences for the South Atlantic Anomaly

Paleomagnetic Evidence for Inverse Correspondence between the Relative Contribution of the Axial Dipole Field and CMB Heat Flux for the Past 270 Myr

We provide an evaluation of the paleolatitudinal dependence of the paleosecular variation throughout the Paleozoic-Mesozoic transition – linked to the high geomagnetic reversal frequency interval Illawarra Hyperzone of Mixed Polarity (IHMP; ~266.7–228.7 Myr). Our findings were compared with those for intervals of distinctive geomagnetic reversal frequencies within the Phanerozoic. Our results for the IHMP were conducted through estimates of angular dispersion (SB) of virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) data groups, taken from a high quality paleomagnetic database. Model G was fitted to these data, providing its shape parameters a and b (respectively related to the antisymmetric and symmetric harmonic terms for the time-average geomagnetic field). Results for the IHMP exhibited compatible patterns with two well-known intervals of higher reversal frequency – Jurassic and the last 5 Myr. A comparison of b/a ratio results – considered as an efficient indicator for the relative contribution of the axial dipole field – for the last 270 Myr, indicated an inverse correspondence with the relative core-mantle boundary (CMB) heat flux, according to recent discussions, clarifying the physical meaning of the Model G shape parameters a and b.

On Destruction of a Thermally Stable Layer by Compositional Convection in the Earth's Outer Core

We discuss destruction of a thermally stable layer in the upper part of the Earth's outer core by compositional convection excited at the inner core boundary. We propose to use the radial distribution of power induced by thermal and compositional buoyancy (rate of kinetic energy production) as a measure of occurrence of thermal and compositional convection. The power consists of the terms proportional to convective entropy flux and convective compositional flux. In the region with positive power, convection is active because kinetic energy can be produced by buoyancy force, and a stably stratified layer could not be formed there. On the other hand, in the region with negative power, convection is suppressed and a stably stratified layer may be produced. Considering penetration effect of convection, we discuss possible maximum and minimum thicknesses of the stable layer based on the radial distribution of power and its radial integral, respectively. We construct a 1-dimensional thermal and compositional balance model of the Earth's core with a larger value of thermal conductivity recently suggested by high-pressure experiments and first principle calculations, and estimate radial distributions of power for various values of core mantle boundary (CMB) heat flux Q_CMB. When Q_CMB > Q_sCMB no thermally stable layer can exist, where Q_sCMB is conductive heat flux along the adiabat at CMB. On the other hand, when Q_CMB < Q_sCMB, formation of an upper thermally stable layer becomes possible, depending on the extent of penetration of compositional convection excited below. When Q_CMB is sufficiently lower than Q_sCMB, a thermally stable layer survives the maximum penetration of compositional convection. The results show that a thermally stable layer becomes effectively thinner when the effect of compositional convection is considered compared with the results of previous studies where the existence of a stable layer is evaluated based on the convective flux only.

Geomagnetic Dipole Changes and Upwelling/Downwelling at the Top of the Earth's Core

The convective state of the top of Earth's outer core is still under debate. Conflicting evidence from seismology and geomagnetism provides arguments for and against a thick stably stratified layer below the core-mantle boundary. Mineral physics and cooling scenarios of the core favor a stratified layer. However, a non-zero secular variation of the total geomagnetic energy on the core-mantle boundary is evidence for the presence of radial motions extending to the top of the core. We compare the secular variation of the total geomagnetic energy with the secular variation of the geomagnetic dipole intensity and tilt. We demonstrate that both the level of cancellations of the sources and sinks of the dipole intensity secular variation, as well as the level of cancellations of the sources and sinks of the dipole tilt secular variation, are either larger than or comparable to the level of cancellations of the sources and sinks of the total geomagnetic energy secular variation on the core-mantle boundary, indicating that the latter is numerically significant hence upwelling/downwelling reach the top of the core. Radial motions below the core-mantle boundary are either evidence for no stratified layer or to its penetration by various dynamical mechanisms, most notably lateral heterogeneity of core-mantle boundary heat flux.

True dipole wander

SUMMARY A fundamental assumption in palaeomagnetism is that the geomagnetic field closely approximates a geocentric axial dipole in time average. Here we use numerical dynamos driven by heterogeneous core–mantle boundary heat flux from a mantle global circulation model to demonstrate how mantle convection produces true dipole wander, rotation of the geomagnetic dipole on geologic timescales. Our heterogeneous mantle-driven dynamos show a dipole rotation about a near-equatorial axis in response to the transition in lower mantle heterogeneity from a highly asymmetric pattern at the time of supercontinent Pangea to a more symmetric pattern today. This predicted dipole rotation overlaps with a palaeomagnetically inferred rotation in the opposite direction and suggests that some events previously interpreted as true polar wander also include true dipole wander.

A Boussinesq slurry model of the F-layer at the base of Earth’s outer core

SUMMARY Seismic observations suggest that a stably stratified layer, known as the F-layer, 150–300 km thick exists at the bottom of Earth’s liquid outer core. These observations contrast with the density inferred from the Preliminary Reference Earth Model (PREM), which assumes an outer core that is well-mixed and adiabatic throughout. The liquid core is composed primarily of iron alloyed with a light component. A thermal boundary layer produces the opposite effect on the density profile compared with the observations, and single phase, thermochemical models do not provide a sufficient dynamic description of how light element is transported across the F-layer into the overlying liquid outer core. We therefore propose that the layer can be explained by a slurry on the liquidus, whereby solid particles of iron crystallize from the liquid alloy throughout the layer. The slurry model provides a dynamic explanation of how light element can be transported across a stable layer. We make two key assumptions, the first of which is fast-melting where the timescale of freezing is considered short compared to other processes. The second assumption is that we consider a binary alloy where the light element is purely composed of oxygen, which is expelled entirely into the liquid during freezing. We present a steady state 1-D box model of a slurry formulated in a reference frame moving at the speed of inner core growth. We ascertain temperature, light element concentration and solid flux profiles by varying the layer thickness, inner core heat flux and thermal conductivity, since there is some uncertainty in these estimates. Our solutions demonstrate that the steady state slurry can satisfy the geophysical constraints on the density jump across the layer and the core–mantle boundary heat flux.

Linking lowermost mantle structure, core-mantle boundary heat flux and mantle plume formation

The dynamics of Earth’s lowermost mantle exert significant control on the formation of mantle plumes and the core-mantle boundary (CMB) heat flux. However, it is not clear if and how the variation of CMB heat flux and mantle plume activity are related. Here, we perform geodynamic model experiments that show how temporal variations in CMB heat flux and pulses of mantle plumes are related to morphologic changes of the thermochemical piles of large-scale compositional heterogeneities in Earth’s lowermost mantle, represented by the large low shear velocity provinces (LLSVPs). We find good correlation between the morphologic changes of the thermochemical piles and the time variation of CMB heat flux. The morphology of the thermochemical piles is significantly altered during the initiation and ascent of strong mantle plumes, and the changes in pile morphology cause variations in the local and the total CMB heat flux. Our modeling results indicate that plume-induced episodic variations of CMB heat flux link geomagnetic superchrons to pulses of surface volcanism, although the relative timing of these two phenomena remains problematic. We also find that the density distribution in thermochemical piles is heterogeneous, and that the piles are denser on average than the surrounding mantle when both thermal and chemical effects are included.

Reduced lattice thermal conductivity of Fe‐bearing bridgmanite in Earth's deep mantle

AbstractComplex seismic, thermal, and chemical features have been reported in Earth's lowermost mantle. In particular, possible iron enrichments in the large low shear‐wave velocity provinces (LLSVPs) could influence thermal transport properties of the constituting minerals in this region, altering the lower mantle dynamics and heat flux across core‐mantle boundary (CMB). Thermal conductivity of bridgmanite is expected to partially control the thermal evolution and dynamics of Earth's lower mantle. Importantly, the pressure‐induced lattice distortion and iron spin and valence states in bridgmanite could affect its lattice thermal conductivity, but these effects remain largely unknown. Here we precisely measured the lattice thermal conductivity of Fe‐bearing bridgmanite to 120 GPa using optical pump‐probe spectroscopy. The conductivity of Fe‐bearing bridgmanite increases monotonically with pressure but drops significantly around 45 GPa due to pressure‐induced lattice distortion on iron sites. Our findings indicate that lattice thermal conductivity at lowermost mantle conditions is twice smaller than previously thought. The decrease in the thermal conductivity of bridgmanite in mid‐lower mantle and below would promote mantle flow against a potential viscosity barrier, facilitating slabs crossing over the 1000 km depth. Modeling of our results applied to LLSVPs shows that variations in iron and bridgmanite fractions induce a significant thermal conductivity decrease, which would enhance internal convective flow. Our CMB heat flux modeling indicates that while heat flux variations are dominated by thermal effects, variations in thermal conductivity also play a significant role. The CMB heat flux map we obtained is substantially different from those assumed so far, which may influence our understanding of the geodynamo.

Mantle control of the geodynamo: Consequences of top‐down regulation

The mantle global circulation, including deep subduction and lower mantle superplumes, exerts first-order controls on the evolution of the core, the history of the geodynamo, and the structure of the geomagnetic field. Mantle global circulation models that include realistic plate motions, deep subduction, and compositional heterogeneity similar to the observed large low seismic velocity provinces in the lower mantle predict that the present-day global average heat flux at the core-mantle boundary (CMB) exceeds 85 mW m−2. This is sufficient to drive the present-day geodynamo by thermochemical convection and implies a very young inner core, with inner core nucleation between 400 and 1100 Ma. The mantle global circulation also generates spatially heterogeneous heat flux at the CMB, with peak-to-peak lateral variations exceeding 100 mW m−2. Such extreme lateral variability in CMB heat flux, in conjunction with the high thermal conductivity of the core, implies that the liquid outer core is thermally unstable beneath the high seismic velocity regions in the lower mantle but thermally stable beneath the large low seismic velocity provinces. Numerical dynamo simulations show how this pattern of heterogeneous boundary heat flux affects flow in the outer core, producing localized circulation patterns beneath the CMB tied to the mantle heterogeneity and long-lived deviations from axial symmetry in the geomagnetic field.