Coral Reef Islands Research Articles

Strontium isotope stratigraphy and paleomagnetic age constraints on the evolution history of coral reef islands, northern South China Sea

Abstract Understanding the history of the response of coral reefs to past climate changes can provide valuable information for predicting the future response of modern reefs. However, dating such ancient biotic carbonate is still challenging because of its sensitivity to diagenetic alteration processes, scarcity of well-preserved fossils, and low magnetic mineral content. There have been a long debates about the origin and evolutionary history of coral reefs in the northern South China Sea, mainly due to the lack of direct and reliable age constraints. This provides us with a good opportunity to verify the practicability of different dating approaches, especially the strontium (Sr) isotope analysis of bulk carbonate. Here, we retrieved a 972.55-m-long core from the Xisha Islands to provide a credible chronologic constraint on the carbonate platform evolution. The lithostratigraphy, strontium isotope stratigraphy, and magnetostratigraphy were analyzed throughout the whole reef sequence. The lithostratigraphic results show that the 873.55 m reef sequence developed on an ancient volcaniclastic basement and experienced multiple evolutionary phases. The 87Sr/86Sr results of all 100 bulk carbonate samples vary from 0.708506 to 0.709168 and show a monotonic increase with decreasing depth, except for a few outliers. Trace-element criteria and stable isotope (δ18O and δ13C) methods were applied to these bulk carbonate samples, and results imply that the primary or near-primary seawater 87Sr/86Sr values were likely preserved, although different degrees of diagenetic alteration occurred. In addition, the paleomagnetic results indicate 10 normal polarity and eight reversed polarity magnetozones. Based on the 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the selected 58 samples and paleomagnetic reconstruction of polarity reversals, the bottom of the reef sequence is dated to 19.6 Ma, and the observed polarity chronozones extend from chron C6 (19.722–18.748 Ma) at 866.60 m to present at the top. Based on the new data, we propose a new chronologic framework for the evolutionary history of the reef islands, where: (1) the reefs initiated in the early Miocene (19.6 Ma) and were drowned until 16.26 Ma; (2) during 16.26–10.66 Ma, lagoon to lagoon slope environments prevailed; (3) the lagoon environment progressively transformed into a reef crest environment from 10.66 to 4.36 Ma and 4.36 to 1.59 Ma; and (4) the reef started to be drowned again during 1.59–0 Ma. Our study provides a new and reliable chronologic constraint on the general evolutionary history of the reef islands in the northern South China Sea. Furthermore, the 87Sr/86Sr results from bulk carbonate indicate that strontium isotope stratigraphy is a powerful dating tool only when rigid sample selection, sequential leaching procedures, and strict trace-element and isotopic criteria are applied.

Immediate Effects of Hurricanes on a Diverse Coral/Mangrove Ecosystem in the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Potential for Recovery

Hurricanes Irma and Maria, two powerful storms that hit the U.S. Virgin Islands less than 2 weeks apart in September 2017, caused extensive damage to the natural resources on St. John. Damage was particularly severe in a unique mangrove/coral ecosystem in three bays within Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument, a National Park Service marine protected area. Many Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) trees were uprooted and tossed into the sea, and the prop roots of others were stripped of corals, sponges and other marine life. No other mangrove area in the Caribbean is known to have so many scleractinian corals (about 30 species before the storms). Although many corals were overturned or buried in rubble, colonies of most of the species, including four that are listed as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, survived. Recovery of this ecosystem will depend on Red Mangrove propagules becoming established and producing prop roots to support rich marine life along with a canopy to provide the shade that was critical to the biodiversity that was present before the storms. Unlike in many situations where major disturbances reduce coral cover, the substrate that must be restored for full recovery to occur is a living substrate—the prop roots of the mangroves. Larvae of corals and sponges will need to recruit on to the roots. Future storms could hinder this process.

Physical modelling of reef island topographic response to rising sea levels

Low-lying coral reef islands are considered extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, particularly sea-level rise and increasing storm magnitude. Inundation and erosion are expected to destabilise reef islands and render them uninhabitable within decades. However, such assertions are founded upon the assumption that reef islands are geomorphologically inert landforms. Whereas, recent planform and cross-sectional analysis of reef island morphodynamics demonstrates that many islands are highly dynamic landforms changing in size, shape and position on the reef platform. This paper describes the first physical modelling experiments to model the whole-of-island morphodynamic response of reef islands to changes in sea level and wave regime. A wave basin is utilised to construct a 1:50 scale three-dimensional model of Fatato Island (Tuvalu) and document the whole-of-island response across a broad range of wave and water-level conditions. Whole-of-island results corroborate flume studies and provide new insights into the modes and styles of island change. Spit rotation, as well as lagoonward island recession and vertical oceanward crest accretion, are identified as the core island responses to increasing water level and wave conditions. However, results show that the rate and magnitude of physical adjustment is strongly dependent on the rate and magnitude of sea-level rise and wave conditions. Results challenge existing models of future island susceptibility to wave driven flooding, demonstrating that washover processes can provide a mechanism to build and potentially maintain island freeboard above sea level. These insights highlight an urgent need to incorporate island morphodynamics into flood risk models in order to produce accurate assessments of future wave-driven flood risks and better resolve island vulnerability.

KONDISI TERUMBU KARANG PULAU MANTEHAGE KABUPATEN MINAHASA UTARA PROVINSI SULAWESI UTARA

Coral reefs are coastal ecosystems with the highest level of diversity. Corals are invertebrates that are included in the Phylum Coelenterata (hollow animal) or Cnidaria. Whereas coral reefs are a collection of millions of polyps. Natural phenomena and various anthropogenic activities threaten the health and presence of Mantehage Island coral reefs and the lack of information about the health conditions of coral reefs on Mantehage Island. The purpose of this study is to determine the condition of coral reefs andto provide baselines data on Mantehage Island. Data collection was done by using UPT method (Underwater Photo Transect). Underwater Photo Transect carried out by underwater shooting using a digital camera that was shielded (housing). Image analysis were done using the CPCe software (Coral Point Count with Excel extensions). The results of coral reef health conditions at four stations on Mantehage Island shows, coral reef cover at each station as follows, station 1 (one) 53.00% were in good condition, station 2 (two) 25.40% were in a moderate condition, station 3 (three) 16.49% were in poor condition, and station 4 (four) 42.07% were in a moderate condition. From the four stations, the condition of Mantehage Island's coral reefs were in the moderate category with a percentage of 34.24%.Keywords:. Mantehage Island, Terumbu Karang, UPT, CPCe

The spatial distribution of microplastic in the sands of a coral reef island in the South China Sea: Comparisons of the fringing reef and atoll

Microplastic pollution of coral reef ecosystems has received increasing attention since the discovery that several typical coral types have the ability to ingest (micro-) plastics. However, data on the distribution of microplastics in coral reef ecosystems are still very limited. The study reported here selected sands/sediments from coral reef islands located in the South China Sea as a representative study site. The abundance of microplastics was found to reach 90 ± 5 items/kg and 530 ± 7 items/kg at the Weizhou Island and Sanya Lu Hui Tou (LHT) sites (fringing reef), respectively. Each of these qualities are lower than the quantity of microplastics collected from the Xisha Islands (atoll) (60 ± 3 to 610 ± 11 items/kg), which experiences less human activity and pollution. Moreover, further investigation demonstrated that the differences in the microplastics in the sands of these atolls and fringing reefs were determined not only by their sources, but were also dependent on their water exchange rates. The primary type and color of the microplastics found in these four sampling zones was red polypropylene and there was a greater proportion of smaller size particles (<1 mm) in the remote atolls of the Nansha and Xisha islands than in the other fringing reef sites. Additionally, there were no obvious differences found in the abundance of microplastics and the compositions/structures of coral sand in the Weizhou Island and Sanya LHT sites.

Kesehatan Karang Kondisi Kesehatan Terumbu Karang Daerah Wisata Selam Pulau Bunaken Sulawesi Utara

Penelitian ini telah dilaksanakan di daerah terumbu karang bagian timur Pulau Bunaken pada tanggal 22-28 Mei 2018. Dengan menggunakan metode PIT (Point Intercept Transect) sepanjang 25 meter yang diletakkan pada kedalaman 5 meter. Hasil penelitian mendapatkan bahwa secara umum persentase tingkat kesehatan karang di daerah terumbu karang Pulau Bunaken bagian timur sebesar 41,2 % dengan jumlah karang yang tidak sehat rata-rata di atas 15 koloni setiap transek. Hal ini mengindikasikan bahwa kondisi kesehatan karang di daerah tersebut berada pada kategori cukup.&#x0D; Kata Kunci. Karang Sehat, Point Intercept Transect, Kategori Cukup.

Massive corals maintain a positive carbonate budget of a Maldivian upper reef platform despite major bleaching event

Coral reefs experienced the third global bleaching event in 2015–2016 due to high sea-surface temperature (SST) anomalies. Declines in net carbonate production associated with coral bleaching are implicated in reef structural collapse and cascading impacts for adjacent coral reef islands. We present the first carbonate budget study of a reef platform surface (reef crest and reef flat) in the southern Maldives and the first record of upper reef flat condition in the central Indian Ocean post the 2015–2016 coral bleaching event. Scleractinian corals were the primary carbonate producers, with live coral cover averaging between 11.1 ± 6.5 and 31.2 ± 21.8% and dominated by massive corals. Gross carbonate production rates averaged 5.9 ± 2.5 G (kg CaCO3 m2 yr−1). Bioerosion was estimated at 3.4 ± 0.4 G, resulting in an average net carbonate production rate of 2.5 ± 2.4 G. Comparison of results with a study of the fore-reef slope highlights major differences in post-bleaching carbonate budget state between the fore-reef slope and the reef platform surface. The positive reef flat carbonate budget is attributed to the persistence of massive corals (Porites spp. and Heliopora spp.) through the bleaching event.

Has Nitrogen Supply to Coral Reefs in the South Pacific Ocean Changed Over the Past 50 Thousand Years?

AbstractTropical islands can facilitate surface ocean biological productivity by enhancing the supply of nitrogen to the euphotic zone. Yet in the world's most oligotrophic oceanic region, the South Pacific Subtropical Gyre (SPSG), this “island mass effect” appears diminished. If this is the case, where did island coral reefs in the SPSG get their nitrogen from, and has this changed over time? Here we use coral skeleton isotopes (δ15N and δ18O) and element/Ca ratios to identify the sources of nitrogen to a late Pleistocene coral reef in the SPSG (Cook Islands); we then compare these results to modern corals in the same region. The supply of nitrogen to the late Pleistocene reef appears dominated by upwelling of subsurface nitrogen during cool dry events, supplemented with nitrogen from island‐induced N2 fixation (27 ± 3%) during warm wet periods. For the modern corals, N2 fixation supplies nitrogen to the island reefs during cool dry periods with groundwater providing nitrogen during wet periods. We propose that the subsurface supply of nitrogen to the modern reefs has declined as a result of reduced upwelling but this supply has been replaced with increasing nitrogen discharge from groundwater and an increase in island‐induced N2 fixation.

Physical and Numerical Modeling of Infragravity Wave Generation and Transformation on Coral Reef Platforms

AbstractWave transformation across reef platforms strongly controls sediment transport processes and coral reef island morphodynamics with infragravity (IG) waves playing an important contributing role. A small‐scale (1:50) laboratory experiment and prototype numerical modeling are used to explore the characteristics of IG wave motion on coral reefs. The slope of the fore reef is the key factor controlling the mechanism of IG wave generation. Steep slopes (&gt;1/10) are dominated by landward and seaward propagating breakpoint‐forced long waves, whereas incoming and then released bound long waves become increasingly important for slopes &lt;1/20. The breakpoint‐forced long wave mechanism is the more effective generator of IG energy, and the most energetic IG motion (normalized by incident wave motion) is generated on reef platforms with a fore reef slope &gt; 1/6. The water level relative to the reef platform hreef is also a key factor, and the largest IG waves are generated for a ratio between hreef and offshore significant wave height Hs,o of −0.25 to 0.75, that is, when most waves break across the reef slope and a fully saturated surf zone extends across the reef platform. An island on the reef platform substantially increases the contribution of IG waves to the total wave spectrum, but increased reef surface roughness reduces IG importance. Under the most optimal conditions, the IG wave height averaged across the platform is 20–30% of the incident offshore wave height. The geomorphic influence of IG waves is considered most significant for reef platforms with energetic waves breaking on the steepest fore reefs.

Retrieval of water quality parameters of South Andaman coral Islands using remotely operated underwater vehicle

ABSTRACT Remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROV)-based spectral irradiance measurements at South Andaman coral reef islands are used to derive water quality parameters (chlorophyll-a, total-suspended sediments, turbidity, salinity, Secchi disk depth, diffuse attenuation coefficient) at different depths of the water column. Different combination of standard formula is used to extract the water quality information from the sub-surface reflectance measurement and compared with the data derived from satellite images and conventional water sample analyses. Water quality data derived from ROV-based irradiance measurement and satellite sensor (Landsat data) correlate well to the extent of 0.85 (R2). Results from spectral irradiance measurements up to 20 m water depth using the ROV along with high-definition images of coral reef biodiversity can be effectively used to understand the habitats' diversity and also to derive different water quality parameters in spatio-temporal scale.

An evolving assessment model for environmental carrying capacity: A case study of coral reef islands

Environmental carrying capacity (ECC) provides an insight into measuring sustainability of the vulnerable coral reef islands. However, an integrated assessment of ECC on the social-ecological system of reef islands is rarely existence. And conventional approaches miss addressing the difference of social development, which would lead to a misinterpretation of sustainable development of reef island system. This study develops an evolving model of RI-ECC which incorporates five specific development phases, and the assessment involves (1) identification and measurement of carrying components, (2) supply/demand surplus analysis of indicators and (3) ECC states determination. A case study is conducted in Zhaoshu Island of China, indicating the efficiency of RI-ECC model and serving as a reference for adaptive management.

Inventory of damage to coral reefs ecosystem in waters of Bungkutoko Island, Kendari City and Barrang Lompo Island, Makassar City

Coastal areas and sea have the potential biological resources large enough, because supported by three main ecosystem the ecosystem mangrove, seagrass beds and coral reefs. To maintain the existence of the ecosystem, control in coastal areas need to conducted one of them is inventory damage ecosystem especially ecosystem coral reefs. On the island of Bungkutoko lack or information on the coral reefs ecosystem is the island Barrang Lompo in addition the information and data on the ecosystem. The purpose of this research is to get data teachers’ marital status and a condition of damage the ecosystem to coral reefs as a second the island. The research results obtained, a covering of coral reef island Bungkutoko depth 5m and 10m namely 36,47% and 41,67% category ‘being’. The island Barrang Lompo station 1 the depth of 5m and 10m namely 38,67% and 42,53% category ‘being’, station 2 covering 23,27% category ‘broken’. To scattery if coral reefs Bungkutoko island 231.31 ha, the Barrang Lompo island 127.47 ha. The level of damage/index mortalities on the island of Bungkutoko depth 5m and 10m namely 0,5593% and 0,6201% category ‘being’. The island Barrang Lompo station 1 depth 5m and 10m namely 0,6011% and 0,5504% category ‘being’, station 2 the level of damage/index mortalities 0,7326% category ‘high’.

Coral Reef Island Initiation and Development Under Higher Than Present Sea Levels

AbstractCoral reef islands are considered to be among the most vulnerable environments to future sea level rise. However, emerging data suggest that different island types, in contrasting locations, have formed under different conditions in relation to past sea level. Uniform assumptions about reef island futures under sea level rise may thus be inappropriate. Using chronostratigraphic analysis from atoll rim islands (sand‐ and gravel‐based) in the southern Maldives, we show that while island building initiated at different times around the atoll (~2,800 and ~4,200 calibrated years before present at windward and leeward rim sites, respectively), higher than present sea levels and associated high‐energy wave events were actually critical to island initiation. Findings thus suggest that projected sea level rise and increases in the magnitude of distal high‐energy wave events could reactivate this process regime, which, if there is an appropriate sediment supply, may facilitate further vertical reef island building.

Stable C and N isotope analysis elucidated the importance of zooplankton in a tropical seagrass bed of Santiago Island, Northwestern Philippines

ABSTRACTThe role of zooplankton in a tropical seagrass ecosystem was investigated in milkfish farms pollution-impacted and -unimpacted seagrass beds in Santiago Island coral reefs, Northwestern Philippines. The aim was to compare between the two sites: (1) abiotic factors and zooplankton community parameters, and (2) the trophic structure using C and N stable isotopes. Low water (98–119 mV) and sediment (–121 to −138 mV) Oxidation Reduction Potential values indicated a reducing environment in the impacted site. Zooplankton in the impacted site showed the typical community response to eutrophication (low diversity, but high total abundance due to the dominance of the cyclopoid copepod Oithona oculata), generally few elevated δ15N values, but a significant shift towards depleted 13C due to the organic enrichment of fish-farm feeds. Apart from suggesting a highly complex food web with POM and zooplankton as main food sources in the unimpacted site, the Bayesian mixing model simulation generated reduced complexity in feeding interactions between basal sources, zooplankton, and fish including adults of a key fish species, Siganus fuscescens, in the impacted sites. In this study, C and N stable isotope analysis has clarified the importance of zooplankton as fish prey in a seagrass bed food web.

First report of geochemical fractionation distribution, bioavailability and risk assessment of potentially toxic inorganic elements in sediments of coral reef Islands of the Persian Gulf, Iran

Metal contamination is a serious environmental concern in the Middle East. Herein, geochemical fractionation distribution and potential sources of thirteen metals (Fe, Al, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, Cr, Ni, V, As, Hg, Pb and Cd) were investigated in sediments from ten coral reef Islands in the Persian Gulf, Iran. To properly assess availability and mobility of elements, enrichment factor (EF), pollution load index (PLI), pollution index (PI), contamination index (CI), sediment pollution index (SPI) and ecological risk assessment were provided. Sediment grain size showed an outstanding role in controlling the levels of potentially toxic inorganic elements (PTIEs). The highest values of total organic matter (TOM) were detected in Kharg and Lavan Islands. Different metals fractionation distribution was found across sites. As was noticed in carbonate (F2), exchangeable (F1), Fe-Mn oxy-hydroxide (F3), organic (F4) and residual (F5) fractions, Hg primarily associated with F2 and F1, whereas Pb and Cd with F2, followed by F1, F3, F5 and F4. Conversely, Ni and V accumulated in F1, suggesting their high mobility and bioavailability, and thus environmental risk to aquatic biota. All metals (except Al, Fe and As) had geological and anthropogenic sources. Based on modified risk assessment analysis, the sediments from Kharg, Lavan, Siri and Lark Islands showed medium adverse effects. Overall, results from this study corroborate that petroleum industry is the main source of pollution of PTIEs in the Persian Gulf, and offer a scientific basis for monitoring and preventing metal pollution in the environment.

Critical Information Gaps Impeding Understanding of the Role of Larval Connectivity Among Coral Reef Islands in an Era of Global Change

Populations of marine organisms on coral reef islands (CRI) are connected in space and time by seawater that transports propagules of plants, animals, and algae. Yet, despite this reality, it is often assumed that routine replenishment of populations of marine organisms on CRI is supported by locally-sourced propagules (hereafter, larvae). Following large disturbances, however, distantly-sourced larvae from less disturbed CRI within a regional meta-population are likely to be important for local population recovery, but evaluating the roles of locally- versus distantly- sourced larvae remains difficult. While larval sources are relatively well known for many fishes, they remain virtually unknown for most taxa, particularly those associated with the benthos, including hermatypic corals. We make the case that CRI provide natural laboratories in which studies of connectivity can enhance understanding of community dynamics under future disturbance regimes, especially where ongoing changes have created novel systems that are functioning in ways differing from the recent past. However, this potential cannot be realized due to the limited breadth, detail, and spatio-temporal concordance of exiting research. Targeted research on the role of connectivity in mediating ecosystem resilience of CRI is required to understand how populations of marine organisms will change in a future affected by large-scale disturbances of anthropogenic origin. Using the coral reefs of Mo’orea (French Polynesia), Okinawa (Japan), and St. John (US Virgin Islands) as examples, we describe the data required to achieve this objective, and discuss why provision of these data will require new modes of multidisciplinary and collaborative research.

Identification of coral recruitment in Lembongan Island, Nusa Penida, Bali

Coral recruitment is the increasing number of individual coral in reef ecosystems. Coral recruitment is generated from generative reproduction that produces coral planula and migration.The success of coral recruitmen is determined by environmental factors. Coral recruitment beneficial are survived from environmental impact, maintaining the potential for recovery and reproduction. Lembongan Island coral reefs are categorized as fringing reef as coral reefs live along the coast and surround the island. Coral reef Lembongan Island is the main environmental carrying capacity for the life of this island. The coral reef of Lembongan Island bioeconomically serves as a tourism object and fishery area. The aim of this research is to know the species, abundance, and survival of coral planula. The research was conducted in Lembongan Island, Bali in 2015 until 2016. The research method is manta tow survey, line intercept transect and coral recruitment. Research shows the coral reefs condition of Lembongan Island in medium to excellent category. Recruitment of coral attached to the substrate consists of Acropora millepora, A. palifera, A. tenuis, Fungia fungites, Montipora digitata, Pocillipora damicormis, Porites sp, Seriatophora hysterix, and Stylophora pistillata. The numbers of individual coral in 2015 are 63 individuals and in 2016 are 50 individuals.

Physical Modelling of Reef Platform Hydrodynamics

Tuck, M.E.; Ford, M.R.; Masselink, G., and Kench, P.S., 2018. Physical Modelling of Reef Platform Hydrodynamics. In: Shim, J.-S.; Chun, I., and Lim, H.S. (eds.), Proceedings from the International Coastal Symposium (ICS) 2018 (Busan, Republic of Korea). Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 85, pp. 491–495. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.Low-lying coral reef islands are considered extremely vulnerable to the implications of climate change, particularly sea level rise. Over the last decade numerical modelling has been the primary method used to predict the future state of coral reef islands in response to rising sea level. However, disregarding complex island morphodynamics, numerical models treat islands as geomorphically inert landforms despite evidence showing islands fluctuate in size, shape and position on the reef flat across a range of timescales. In order to improve our understanding and incorporate reef island morphodynamics into predictive models, a physical modelling methodology is applied to a motu, a gravel island generally located on the windward side of coral reef atolls. Physical modelling experiments took place in the Coastal Basin at the COAST laboratory, Plymouth University, UK. A 1:50 scale reef platform was constructed based on the morphology of the reef platform on the windward side of Funafuti atoll, Tuvalu. Wave processes on the reef platform have a strong influence on island geomorphology and therefore accurate replication of the hydrodynamic processes are a crucial aspect of successfully physically modelling island morphodynamics. This paper details the reef platform hydrodynamics observed during 18 experiments where wave height, wave period and water level were varied. Results highlight the successful application of physical modelling to reproduce field observations of reef platform hydrodynamics in the flume, demonstrating the accuracy of the scaled physical modelling experiments.

An environmental magnetism approach to assess impacts of land-derived sediment disturbances on coral reef ecosystems (Cartagena, Colombia)

We used environmental magnetism methods to study recently deposited marine sediments from the estuarine ecosystems on the Caribbean coast of Colombia. Cartagena region has undergone an increasing sediment load during the last decades via sediment plumes from Magdalena River and its distributary man-made channel. Concentration dependent magnetic parameters show an increasing abundance of ferrimagnetic minerals on the uppermost sediments on sites located close to the continent (remanent magnetization SIRM = 5.4–9.5 × 10−3Am2 kg−1) as well as faraway sites (SIRM = 0.5–1.7 × 10−3Am2 kg−1 near Rosario Islands coral reef complex). The magnetic grain size and mineralogy along the cores are variable, showing the dominance of the magnetite-like minerals (remanent coercivity Hcr = 34.3–45.3 mT), with a minor contribution of high-coercivity minerals (Hcr = 472–588 mT). In addition, there is a moderate enrichment of elements Cu, Mo, and Zn (enrichment factor EF = 1.5–3.8) that indicates the additional land-derived contribution on sediments. The environmental magnetism approach, which shows significant signals of magnetic minerals and trace elements, is a reliable tool to prove the presence of continental sediment supply in coral reef ecosystems.

Climate change and regional human pressures as challenges for management in oceanic islands, South Atlantic

This study aimed to determine the main anthropogenic pressures and the effectiveness of management practices in marine protected areas (MPAs) (Rocas Atoll and Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, South Atlantic). The MPAs exhibited high management effectiveness over the last 25 years due to the control of local pressures (i.e., fishing and tourism). However, the increase in regional and global pressures, such as invasive species, marine debris, and climate change stressors (sea-level rise, extreme events, range shifts of species, warming, and ocean acidification), are environmental risks that need to be considered during conservation. Strategies for large scale marine spatial planning, as well as proposals for an integrated management of MPAs (including coral reef islands and seamounts) by the articulation of a network, which reduces regional human pressures and improves ocean governance were discussed. This study provided insights into the challenges faced in the management of MPAs in a rapidly changing ocean.