Coptic Church Research Articles

Representing the Coptic community: the Communal Council and the road to the 1911 Coptic Congress

In March 1911, representatives of the Coptic Christian community convened in Asyut in Upper Egypt to discuss perceived grievances hindering Coptic equality with the Muslim majority. Given the apparent peculiarity of the event, it has become customary to situate the 1911 Coptic congress within the context of a rapidly escalating sectarian strife in colonial Egypt following the appointment and assassination of the first Coptic prime minister, Butrus Ghali (1908–1910). Departing from this view, this article proposes to examine the Asyut congress against the backdrop of the development of the Coptic Communal Council ( al-majlis al-milli ) and the ensuing conflict between the lay reformists and the high clergy crystallizing at the end of the century. This study argues that the 1911 congress constitutes a link in the chain of the development of the Communal Council movement that aimed at expanding the purview and jurisdiction of the Council beyond the boundaries of the Coptic Orthodox community ( taʾifa ) to encompass all Egyptian Christians across geographical and denominational lines.

Regime change and religious discrimination after the Arab uprisings

This article investigates how and when regime transitions intensify minority discrimination through an analysis of two types of religious persecution following the Arab uprisings. We argue that weakened institutions and the prevalence of religious outbidding during political transitions make societal-based religious discrimination (SRD) more likely to increase than government-based religious discrimination (GRD). This is because social divisions are often exacerbated and social unrest difficult to contain, while at the same time, policy change can be difficult to enact and enforce. We test these claims through a mixed-methods research design. Employing a synthetic control method, the cross-national, quantitative analysis from 1990 to 2014 confirms that GRD has not changed since the Arab uprisings, while SRD has substantially increased in those countries (i.e. Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia) that also experienced regime change. A case study of Egypt provides more direct evidence of the institutional and outbidding mechanisms. The qualitative analysis draws on ethnographic research conducted in Cairo during 2014, which includes in-depth interviews with Coptic Orthodox Christians. Our findings underscore the twin challenge of protecting and accommodating minority religions during periods of political transition.

Seeking The Authentic Christianity: A Prologue on Coptic Orthodox Christianity in Indonesia

<p>The history of Christianity in Indonesia is inextricably linked to that of Western colonialism. Due to this historical fact, Christianity has been stigmatized in Indonesian mainly by Muslim society as a colonial religion. This stigma later emerged in a number of Indonesian Christian communities. This study will look at the development of Coptic Orthodox Christianity in Indonesia through the lens of a religious purification movement. This study employs a sequential mixed research method that includes interviews, questionnaires, observation, and documentation. This study show that the conversion of mainstream Christians to Coptic Orthodox Christianity arose from a perception that mainstream Christianity was impure, too westernized, and did not conform to the identity of Indonesians as Easterners. This study ends with a conclusion that the presence of the Coptic Orthodox Christian community in Indonesia was exacerbated by an identity crisis, moral criticism, and rejection of the truth system in mainstream Christianity, as well as a desire to return to authentic Christianity.</p>

A Muslim-Christian Heterarchy in 12th-Century Cairo

Abstract In 1103 C.E. the newly elected Coptic patriarch Abā Maqāra rode in a procession to the residence of the Fatimid vizier al-Afḍal in al-Qāhira, where a ceremonial reception took place. Both men represented entangled political groups of interest, and this moment can be taken as an equilibrium of power between the city’s Muslims and Christians. At least, the main document about the event evokes this impression: being part of the official historiography of the Egyptian Coptic Orthodox Church, this text is an element of political negotiations and semantics too. Carole Crumley’s approach of a dynamic interplay between hierarchy and heterarchy can be a tool for better understanding this historic moment and for illuminating its complex sociocultural and spatial constructions. On the one hand, the Christians’ status was shaped by the strict ranking of the ḏimma-law. On the other hand, Cairo was like other urban settlements under Muslim rule: at least in some aspects an heir of the antique polis representing several groups of interest.

Intertwined Hierarchies: The Intersection of Religion and Gender in the Personal Status Laws of Orthodox Copts in Egypt

This paper raises questions about the extent to which the demand for a uniform civil personal status law, as advocated by progressive forces in Egypt, shows consideration for the context of religious persecution. In presenting a historical review of milestones in legislation regulating the personal status of Orthodox Copts in Egypt from an intersectional feminist perspective, the paper attempts to lay bare the balance of power among the parties that contributed to framing this legislation. It offers a brief overview of the historical context of the personal status law in Egypt, followed by a history of the emergence of the Coptic Orthodox General Communal Council, which issued Statute 38, the law that has governed the personal status affairs of Christians since 1938. The paper then reviews relevant regulations, legislation, and papal decrees, as well as significant disputes between the church and state on divorce and remarriage for Copts. Finally, it discusses the interlocking hierarchies that shape the status quo: the hierarchy between recognised and unrecognised denominations, between the Coptic Orthodox Church as the ‘mother church’ and the Catholic and Protestant churches, and between the clergy and the laity within the Orthodox Church, as well as social hierarchies based on religious identity (Muslims and non-Muslims) and gender.

Coptic Months in Islamic Years. The use of the fiscal year (al-sana al-ḫarāǧiyya) in Fatimid Egypt (969-1171 CE) against the background of Arabicisation and Islamisation

This study investigates the combination of Coptic months on the one hand, and years that refer to the chronology of Islam on the other, especially in the so-called fiscal (ḫarāǧ) year, in documentary and narrative sources from Egypt, with a focus on Copto-Arabic historiography. The main research question is that of the correlation between the choice of calendar (Coptic, fiscal, Islamic) and religious identity (Christian, Muslim). After a discussion on the problem of a lunisolar year in early Islamic Egypt, some documentary texts (Arabic papyri) from the first three centuries following the Arab conquest are analysed. The rest of the paper concentrates on the Fatimid period (969-1171 CE), when the ḫarāǧ year was given an official status. Again, the confessional prosopography in documentary texts is compared to the choice of system for naming months and counting years. The final section investigates the calendars used in a selected part of the Arabic History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, the official history of the Coptic Church.

Competing Notions of Integration in Canada’s First Coptic Orthodox Parishes, 1960s–1980s


 
 
 Coptic identities are neither static nor reducible to a single definition. For the Coptic Orthodox, immigration and the process of integration produced multiple, competing responses across central Canada in the second half of the twentieth century that expose the complex social lives of individuals and groups. The author charts a history of collaboration and contestation among clergy, church activists, and cultural events organizers who held competing notions of integration in Cold War Montreal and Toronto. Rejecting a culturally driven interpretation that sees the Coptic Orthodox as homogenous and indistinguishable from their religious practices, this article argues that heteroglossia—of varied and at times opposing voices—should serve as a starting point for inquiry. Given the huge range and the challenges that lie ahead for reconstructing the Egyptian immigrant experience, the process of sharing in an array of interpretations is more important than a rigid definition.
 
 

Coptic Orthodox Cleric’s Perspective on the Formation of Coptic Identity in the Diaspora


 
 
 Through its multi-decade existence, the Coptic diaspora continues to grapple with identity formation issues, both at the individual and collective levels. Efforts reflect a wide range of attitudes toward the identity of origin, ranging from retention and maintenance to rejection and formation of a new identity. Additionally, the Coptic diasporic identity is influenced by how the identity of origin is perceived. For this factor, the choice is usually made between two positions, victimhood or triumphalism. Some can step outside this false dichotomy, embracing an empowered identity of action, which is neither ignorant of the past nor subjugated by it. Furthermore, the process of identity formation is influenced by an array of moderating factors, operating in a complex web of interactions. The complex process of identity formation can be observed in the Coptic diaspora. A look at this complex issue from a Coptic Orthodox cleric’s perspective, serving the largest Coptic Orthodox congregation in Canada established in the early 1980s, is presented in this paper within the timeframe of 2007–2021. Unless otherwise stated, views presented in this paper reflect the author’s observations over the stated timeline and within the stated geographical area.
 
 

Beyond Church and State: Contentions of Minority Citizenship in Egypt

ABSTRACT: This article attends to the entanglement of Coptic Christians and the Coptic Orthodox Church with a national politics centered around the citizenship concept and fraught with sectarianism. Since the early 1980s, the Coptic Orthodox Church has institutionally incorporated youth politics, pedagogy, and education through its Youth Bishopric. Following the 2011 Egyptian revolution, the rise of Coptic political movements that challenged the Church’s authority were portrayed by scholars as working in opposition to the Church’s politics and pedagogy. By weaving together accounts of the historical and contemporary programming of the Church’s Youth Bishopric and conversations around the discourse of citizenship in post-2011 Egypt among Coptic youth activists from the Maspero Youth Union, this article tracks Coptic contradictions of secular citizenship and debate over minority status. It specifically shows how Copts are engaging these contradictions in debate and ultimately parses out how the social conditions of such debate in itself may answer a call for an “ethical thematization” of religious difference.

To the South-East of Rome: Relations between the Syriac and Coptic Churches

This article brings to light the wide spectrum of cooperation over time and space between the Churches of Syro-Mesopotamia and Egypt, which both reject the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. Among the ancient Apostolic Churches only these two conserved an unbroken, transparent and full ecclesiastical unity, nurturing the complementary heritages not just at the level of Church hierarchy. They are true sister Churches, also literally: in Semitic languages the word “church” is feminine. The article describes several common elements in liturgy, the circumstances of patriarchs from one Church reigning over the other, ordination of each other’s priests, monasteries built on each other’s territory, where up to hundreds of monks of both denominations served, including famous theologians, writers, translators and scholars. An important place, even today, belongs to the still working monastery of Dayr as-Suryān in Egypt. Its extensive library with unique manuscripts in Syriac was moved, mostly to the Vatican, in the 18 th century. Other important aspects are mutual help with education and church access, as well as Syriac borrowings present in the Coptic liturgy and everyday speech.

دور المطارنة المصریین فی التاریخ الإثیوبی (1635-1699) دراسة وصفیة من واقع بعض النصوص الجعزیة

يتناول البحث الدور الديني والسياسي للمطارنة المصريين الذين رأسوا الکنيسة الإثيوبية الأرثوذکسية في الفترة من(1635-1699م)، وترجع أهمية تلک الفترة إلى عودة الکنيسة الإثيوبية إلى کنف الکنيسة القبطية الأرثوذکسية، بعد تخلص إثيوبيا من محنة التحول إلى المذهب الکاثوليکي، وبداية عصر الفوضى في التاريخ الإثيوبي، وتهدف الدراسة إلى أن: دراسة دور المطارنة المصريين خلال الفترة (1635-1699م)، والوقوف على الإسهام الديني والسياسي لکل منهم من واقع بعض النصوص الجعزية، واعتمادا على ما ذکرته المصادر العربية والأجنبية، باستعمال المنهج الوصفي التاريخي، ثم المنهج النقدي المقارن للنصوص التاريخية التي تعتمد عليها الدراسة، وخلصت الدراسة إلى: الدور الديني والسياسي للمطارنة المصريين فرض نفسه على تدوين تاريخ إثيوبيا، وکان موقف المطارنة المصريين من الجدل الديني حول طبيعة السيد المسيح متغيرا، اعتمادا على الحاکم وقناعاته، وقد کان ظهور الدور التشريعي لهم محدودا في فترة الدراسة، وکان تداخل الدورين السياسي والديني للمطارنة المصريين في تاريخ إثيوبيا حتميا، وکانت رغبة الحاکم في إضفاء الشرعية على حکمه وقراراته السياسية تدفعه للاستعانة بالمطران المصري، لإضفاء صفة الشرعية الدينية على القرارات السياسية المختلفة کضمانه لقبول الشعب الإثيوبي بها. Abstract The research deals with the religious and political role of the Egyptian Bishops, who headed the Ethiopian Orthodox Church from (1635-1699), and the importance of that period is due to the return of the Ethiopian Church to the Coptic Orthodox Church, after Ethiopia ridded of converting to Catholicism. The beginning of the chaotic era in Ethiopian history. The study aims to: Study the role of Egyptian bishops during the period (1635-1699), and to identify the religious and political contribution of each of them from the reality of some of Ge’ez texts, and based on what Arab and foreign sources stated, using the descriptive method, and the study concluded: the religious and political role of Egyptian Bishops imposed itself on the codification of the history of Ethiopia, The Egyptian Bishops' position on the religious debate over the nature of Christ was changing, depending on the ruler and his convictions, and the appearance of their legislative role was limited during the study period, the overlap of the political and religious roles of Egyptian bishops in Ethiopia's history was inevitable, and the governor's desire to legitimize his rule and political decisions prompted him to use the Egyptian bishop, to legitimize various political decisions as a guarantee of acceptance by the Ethiopian people.

Патриаршество Петра IV и Дамиана как время генезиса Коптской Церкви: проблемы и предлагаемые решения

Introduction. The article examines a recently put forward hypothesis that the time of the Coptic Church’s final genesis was the period of the Alexandrian anti-Chalcedonian Patriarchs Peter IV (576–578) and Damian (578–607). Methods. A comparative research method and factor analysis are used. The main research task is to identify all the factors that contributed to the making of full-fledged ecclesiastical structures by the Theodosians (one of the trends of the Egyptian Miaphysites), and a correlation of these factors with each other to single out the main of them. Analysis. The successful establishment of the Miaphysites (Theodosian) episcopate resulted from the configuration of objective and subjective factors. Objective factors include the following: the weakening of control by the central authorities over the structures of the Miaphysites after Justinian I (482/483–565), the increasing regionalization of the empire and the strengthening of the role of local elites in the provinces, the growing importance of the Coptic language in secular and clerical office work. Subjective factors include the victory of the Miaphysite Patriarch Peter IV over his rival Theodore and the appearance of Damian as Peter’s successor. Results. On the whole, the proposed hypothesis quite thoroughly explains the emergence of the Coptic Church during the period. However, it has several disadvantages, which open up a number of prospects for further researches. Firstly, there is almost no explanation for the success of Damian’s personnel policy. Secondly, insufficient attention was paid to the Egyptian anti-Chalcedonian monasticism. From the author’s point of view, Egyptian Miaphysite monks, suffering from the pressure of the central and local authorities after the Chalcedonian schism, managed to establish an effective network functioned as a “rhizome”, on which the episcopate risen during Peter’s and Damian’s time relied primarily in rebuilding stable ecclesiastical structures in Egypt.

Reflections on the City of Alexandria and the growth of the early Christian faith

The city of Alexandria in Egypt was and remains the centre of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, and it was one of the major centres of Christianity in the Eastern Roman Empire. St. Mark the Evangelist was the founder of the See, and the Patriarchate's emblem is the Lion of Saint Mark. It was in this city where the Christian faith was vigorously promoted, and in which Hellenic culture flourished. The first theological school of Christendom was stablished which drove catechesis and the study of religious philosophy to new heights. It was greatly supported in its quest by numerous champions of the faith and early Church Fathers such as inter-alia, Pantaenus, Clement, Dionysius, Gregory, Eusebius, Athanasius, Didymus and Origen. Both the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria and also the Coptic Church, lay claim to the ancient legacy of Alexandria. By the time of the Arab conquest of Egypt in 641 CE, the city had lost much of its significance. Today the Greek or Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria remains a very important organ the dissemination of Christianity in Africa especially due to its missionary activities. The head bishop of the Patriarchate of Alexandria and all Africa, Theodore II, and his clerics are performing meritorious works on the continent to the glory of God’s Kingdom. This article traces, albeit it in a limited sense, the history of the faith in Alexandria using a desk-top research methodology. In order to trace Alexandria’s historical development and especially its Christian religious focus, existing relevant primary and secondary data considered to be relevant was utilised including research material published in academic articles, books, bibliographic essays, Biblical and Church documents, electronic documents and websites.

Social Ethic or Spiritual Ethos? Non-Orthodox Christian and Coptic Orthodox Perspectives

This article modestly anticipates the still-unfolding reception of the laudable document For the Life of the World: Toward a Social Ethos of the Orthodox Church by two broadly-envisioned communities—those of non-Orthodox Christians and Coptic Orthodox Christians. There is much to be commended by the former, especially regarding the document's balanced assessment amidst complicated issues uncharted in the Orthodox world. This balance is possible through the effective coalescence of a theocentric worldview, a comfort with mystery, and a loosely-defined Orthodox anthropology. Regarding the latter community, the document serves as a pioneering and bold example that does not neglect social relevance at the behest of theological commitments. At the same time, Coptic Orthodox Christians, in their insistence on the centrality of desert spirituality, are likely to question the document's sometimes tepid allusions to spiritual transformation, since the principal means out of which come social change, right action and good conscience for Orthodox Christians is through a life entrenched in Godward ascetic spirituality.

Interaction of Russia and the Russian Orthodox Church with Christian communities in Egypt and Ethiopia in the second half of the 19<sup>th</sup> — early 20<sup>th</sup> century

The article presents the history of the relationship of the Russian Orthodox Church with the Christian communities of Egypt and Ethiopia. The article is also concerned with the issue of contacts between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Coptic Church of Egypt in the second half of the 19th and early 20th century. The first almost informal contacts between representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church and the Alexandria Patriarchate allowed Egyptian Christians to get acquainted with the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church, and representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church — with the real state of the religious, political and cultural situation in Egypt. The article also examines the attempts of representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church to establish ties with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which was part of the Alexandria Patriarchate until 1959.

The Coptic origins of the Yoruba

The theory according to which the Yoruba ancestors were Coptic Christians seemed unpopular amongst many Yoruba people despite the fact that the theory was proposed by the most revered Yoruba historian, Samuel Johnson. The aims of this research are firstly, to study Johnson’s Coptic theory of the Yoruba origins and secondly, to highlight the circumstances that might have informed him to associate the Yoruba people with the Coptic Church. This research is achieved through a historical study of a possible interaction between certain ethnic groups in Nigeria and the Coptic Church, and through a comparative study of Church liturgies amongst the Copts and those of the Yoruba traditional churches. The researcher explained that Johnson’s Christian background influenced his narrative of connecting the Yoruba origins with the Copts. The researcher is of the opinion that there is no evidence provided by Johnson according to which the Yoruba people originated from the Copts.

Sustainable Guidelines for Enhancing Indoor Thermal Comfort in Coptic Churches in Egypt Using Passive Design Strategies; Case Study St. Barbarah and Virgin Mary Churches

Since the 20th century, the temperature has risen, worldwide, due to climate change causing global warming. Such phenomena have resulted in thermal dissatisfaction within various buildings indoor spaces including Egyptian Coptic Orthodox churches. Heritage churches designs have always implemented passive strategies to provide indoor thermal comfort. However, modern churches design tend to use active strategies to provide indoor thermal satisfaction instead of referring to the use of passive designs. Accordingly, the main purpose of this research is to identify a set of guidelines to enhance indoor thermal comfort in modern Coptic Orthodox churches using passive design strategies. The research has adapted a mixed method approach where an in-depth literature review resulting a qualitative summary of passive techniques used in heritage Coptic churches, then followed by a comparative analysis between two Egyptian case studies; the first is a heritage church (St. Barbarah church) and the other is modern which is (Virgin Mary church) based on the deducted passive strategies from the literature. Moreover, an applicable simulation for varying the methodology, using Design Builder, where the modern church will be simulated and tested for thermal comfort before and after modifying it using the passive strategies deducted from the literature. The research’s main findings were the list of passive techniques that could be used to enhance the indoor thermal comfort, while the simulation experimental results where related to a typical summer week, showing that for the average air temperature and the average solar gains, the triple glazing was the most effective in causing indoor thermal comfort. But, for the average relative humidity and average of total fresh air, insulation has shown to be most effective in providing enhanced indoor thermal comfort. To conclude, a set of guidelines has been deduced from the methods adapted in the research showing the most suitable and applicable passive design strategies that could be used inside Coptic Orthodox churches to enhance indoor thermal comfort.

The Syriac Orthodox and Coptic Orthodox Churches in Austria: Inter-Church Relations and State Recognition

This article explores the inter-church and church-state relations of the Syriac Orthodox and Coptic Orthodox Churches in Austria. The strong historic role of the Catholic Church in Austria's political landscape provides the central framework to understand the “story of success” regarding relations with both the Catholic Church and state authorities in Austria. Summarizing the history of migration and establishment of diaspora churches in Austria, the article explores the impact of the support of the Catholic Church in the process of institutionalization. In addition, state recognition and examples of church-state interaction are highlighted. The findings support the conclusion that minority churches from the Oriental Orthodox tradition have benefitted strongly from their relations with the majority church and the state. However, their authority in both religious and political contexts also affects personal leadership and internal affiliations which can lead to divisions within the church communities.

“21 Martyrs of Libya”: Presenting Holiness in the Contemporary Coptic Church

In the Coptic tradition, recognition of someone’s holiness is a rather spontaneous process and the Holy Synod of the Church rarely announces new saints. Nevertheless, a new trend has become evident. In 2013 the Church officially canonized Patriarch Cyril VI of Alexandria (1902-1971) and Archdeacon Habib Gerges (1876-1951), and in February 2015, the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria, Tawadros II, canonized twenty-one Coptic Christians, a week after the medias of so-called Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) uploaded a video onto social media showing their beheading. The video on social media depicting their vivid and horrid staged execution, inspired the iconographic presentations of the event. Following the newly established, diverse and ever-growing iconographical and hagiographical tradition around the newly recognized martyrs of the Church, this paper will examine how holiness is visually constructed in the Coptic Church, in light of the legacy of late professor Isaac Fanous (1919-2007), who established the canons of the Neo-Coptic School of Iconography.

Saints and tradition in Coptic Orthodox Christianity in Egypt

Saints and tradition in Coptic Orthodox Christianity in Egypt