Copper Ore Deposits Research Articles

Ore Mineralization of Active Paleomargins of Continents (on the Example of Alpine Metallic Deposits of Caucasus and Pontides)

Metallogenic features of Pontides – Lesser Caucasus microplates (part of active paleomargin of Eurasian microplate are determined by copper, copper-molibdenium porphyry, iron-scarn, volcanic nonferrous, precious metals, auriferous and manganese ore deposits. Their orebearing fluid systems occurred consistently on various stages of development of the region and were correlated with geological processes on the border of convergental and divergental interaction of mic¬roplates. The above mentioned types of ore deposits display clear areal and temporary bonds with certain composites of lithogeodynamic complexes (which are presented in mountain folding systems of relics of ancient geomorphological structures) - geological formations. Different geologic-genetical models are suggested for each type of deposits, characterizing possible sources of ore substance, causes of rise and functions of fluid systems, in addition to ore formation environment. It may be said that different genetic groups of deposits are regularly associated with certain litho-geodynamic complexes. The complexes of the paleomarginal sea hollows of the divergent type are specialized in copper and pyrite-polimetallic hydrothermal-sedimentary mineralization; island arc systems of different age – in copper and copper-zinc hydrothermal-sedimentary and epigenetic mineralization; their uplifted blocks – in gold, copper-porphyry and skarn-iron-ore mineralization. Within the area of volcanic-sedimentary copper-zinc deposits in intra-arc sea hollows (Pontides) manganese accumulations are sometimes encountered.

Importance of Geotechnical Investigation for Design and Construction of Shafts over 1000 m Deep

In most cases, copper ore deposits occur at great depths, so the optimization of excavation costs is of utmost importance to identify the most cost effective and productive mining methods, such as block caving or similar methods specifically developed for these deposits. To be able to apply such methods, it is necessary to have a detailed knowledge of the rock mass in terms of its geomechanical, engineering geological and hydrogeological characteristics. This research aims to reduce geological and geotechnical unknowns, analyze in detail the geological environment, and predict geotechnical conditions for the construction of the shaft. This paper uses the example of Borska Reka Copper Deposit, located in Serbia to illustrate the importance of geotechnical investigation to enable best practice in design and construction of shafts that are over 1000 m deep.

Seismic activity induced by exploitation in vicinity of mined-out space, case study from deep copper ore mine in Poland

Rock bursts are one of the most difficult to recognize and assess natural hazards in deep copper ore mines in Poland. The occurrence of rock bursts is conditioned by a number of complex geological and mining factors. The impact of each of the factors on the state of seismic hazard is sometimes impossible to be determined. The correct recognition of the rock mass condition and the causes of rock burst threat gives a chance for advance preparation of adequate prevention, and thus for eliminating or reducing the threat to the level of tolerated risk. In Poland’s copper ore mines, continuous observation of seismic activity is carried out, which is expressed in the number of tremors and their energy over a specified period of time. Moreover, the effectiveness of prevention measures and, in particular, of the active ones, which are aimed at provoking seismic energy emissions through properly executed winning blasting works, is calculated and analysed. Reducing the amount of energy accumulated in the rock mass reduces the risk of rock bursts. Exploitation is carried out in a way that avoids parallel approach of the operational front towards the goafs, drifts, and faults with drops greater than the height of the mined deposit. However, over forty years of mining of the copper ore deposit, which has created the large areas of mined-out space mean that mining works are increasingly carried out under restrained conditions. There are unfavourable geological and mining situations in the exploitation fields, disrupting rhythmic development and an even front line. The specific structure of the copper ore deposit in Poland makes it possible to conduct multidirectional cutting and to introduce local changes in the adopted directions of exploitation. Cases of operational fronts approaching goafs occur often in the vicinity of old mining infrastructure and when there is the need to mine remnant parts of the deposit not previously intended for exploitation or not mined yet. Generally, exploitation in the direction of goafs or yielding zones is limited to the cutting and yielding works. The purpose of the study was to analyse the seismic and rock burst hazard in an exploitation field located at a depth of 850 m in a copper ore mine, over a period of 5 years, when mining was carried out towards goafs. Seismic activity and the effectiveness of rock burst prevention measures were assessed and analysed. The active prevention i.e. the group winning blasting works was an inseparable element of the excavation technology. It was found that when the operational front progressed towards adjacent goafs, there were symptoms of an increase in rock mass pressure causing the destruction of roof rocks and, as a consequence, deterioration of roof stability, squeezing of floor, relaxation of the side walls and increase of seismic activity, which posed the potential threat of rock bursts.

The Comparison of Main Copper Sulphide Minerals Beneficiation Under Laboratory and Industrial Conditions at the KGHM Concentration Plant

The Zechstein copper ore deposit located on the Foresudetic monocline has a complex geological structure both in lithological and mineralogical aspects. The significant variability in quantity and quality of minerals deposited in the ore bed is one of the factors determining the susceptibility of copper ore to beneficiation based on flotation, which is carried out in the KGHM Concentration Plant. Based on the algorithm developed, flotation experiments on a laboratory scale have been conducted to predict the upgrade rates under industrial conditions. This paper provides the results of the mineralogical examination of the flotation products performed by one of the KGHM Concentration process lines and compares the beneficiation of various copper sulphide minerals. The results of the laboratory tests have been compared with the results of sampling carried out simultaneously at the process line. A procedure has been proposed to develop equations defining the industrial upgradability curves for copper sulphide minerals under the KGHM Concentration Plant conditions.

Type of mineralization and studies of fluid inclusions of the Bolboli2 copper ore deposit, northeast of Sirjan, SE Iran

Type of mineralization and studies of fluid inclusions of the Bolboli2 copper ore deposit, northeast of Sirjan, SE Iran

Up the Wadi: Development of an Iron Age Industrial Landscape in Faynan, Jordan

ABSTRACT In 2014, the Edom Lowlands Regional Archaeology Project renewed excavations at Khirbat al-Jariya (KAJ), an Iron Age copper smelting site in Faynan, Jordan. Located roughly 3 km from the prominent smelting center Khirbat en-Nahas (KEN), KAJ was an integral component of Early Iron Age (ca. 1200–800 b.c.) copper production in Faynan, one of the largest copper ore deposits in the southern Levant. To date, the site had only been investigated by surveys and limited excavation; the 2014 excavations opened two areas (the largest extant building and a slag mound sounding) to explore the social dynamics and temporal intricacies of copper production. The excavation results, detailed site remapping, paleobotanical analysis, and new radiocarbon dates suggest KAJ more rapidly developed into a large-scale copper production center than previously believed, likely as a strategic expansion to the industry at KEN. This reinterpretation sheds new light on the development of the Iron Age industrial landscape in Faynan.

Adjustment of the Yielding System of Mechanical Rock Bolts for Room and Pillar Mining Method in Stratified Rock Mass

The article presents a novel yielding mechanism, especially designed for the rock bolt support. Mechanical rock bolts with an expansion head and equipped with one, two, four and six dome bearing plates were tested in the laboratory conditions. Furthermore, in the Phase2D numerical program, five room and pillar widths were modeled. The main aim of numerical modeling was to determine the maximal range of the rock damage area and the total displacements in the expanded room. The models were made for a room and pillar method with a roof sag for copper ore deposits in the Legnica-Głogów Copper District in Poland. Additionally, in the article a load model of the rock bolt support as a result of a geomechanical seismic event is presented. Based on the results of laboratory tests (load–displacement characteristics), the strain energy of the bolt support equipped with the yielding device in the form of dome bearing plates was determined and compared with the impact energy caused by predicted falling rock layers. Based on the laboratory tests, numerical modeling and mathematical dynamic model of rock bolt support, the dependence of the drop height and the corresponding impact energy for the expanded room was determined.

Prospects for using combined (traditional and physical-chemical) mining technologies in the development of large gold-copper ore deposits

The article deals with the problems of development of large gold-copper ore deposits, which have prospects for the development of mining and processing complexes based on them, which produce refined metals as final products. The article substantiates the feasibility of using combined traditional and physical-chemical geotechnologies in the development of these deposits, including geotechnologies in mining, using innovative processes of activation of heap and underground leaching of copper, fine and dispersed gold from complex ores. At the initial stage of development of the large deposits of complex ores, in parallel with traditional schemes open-pit mining and ore processing at the processing plant, it is advisable to use the activation heap leaching of valuable components from poor and refractory ores and flotation tailings from ordinary and rich ore. At the second stage, when switching to the underground method of field development, it is proposed to use blockhole leaching with explosion-injection ore preparation with combination with it. The proposed schemes for combined development of complex gold-copper ore and copper-ore deposits with precious metal mineralization are based on data obtained during many years of experimental research and pilot tests.

Removal of Copper from Underspoil Water of Mines by Cementation

The author studied the process of copper removal from underspoil water at Blyavinskoe and Safyanovskoe copper ore deposits by cementation by iron. The influence of pH, consumption of cementation agent impurity ions Fe3+, Al3+ and Ca2+, as well as timing on the cementation performance was analyzed. The mechanism of the process was determined, and by-reactions resulting in over-consumption of cementation agent were revealed. The studies of the material constitution of cemented copper showed that the concentrate quality worsened because of the joint settling of basic aluminum and calcium sulfates. The obtained results make it possible to draw the conclusion on applicability of cementation for removal of copper from underspoil water.

Copper Minerals at Vesuvius Volcano (Southern Italy): A Mineralogical Review

This work is part of a project focused on the Somma–Vesuvius volcano and aimed at identifying Cu minerals related to mineralizing processes associated with magmatic activity in an active magmatic-hydrothermal system. A mineralogical survey was carried out on a set of samples represented by sublimates and fumarolic products from the collection of the Mineralogical Museum of the University of Naples Federico II (Italy). These samples are mainly related to most recent eruptive episodes of Vesuvius activity, from 1631 onward. Copper-bearing minerals were characterized, as well as associated minerals, by X-ray diffraction (XRD) scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). An investigation on the structural complexity of Cu-mineral assemblages with different temperature formations was also carried out using the TOPOS software package. The main copper phases are sulfates, followed by vanadates, hydroxyhalides, oxides, carbonates, silicates and finally, phosphates. New mineral occurrences for Vesuvius, both Cu-bearing and Cu-free, are described. Nevertheless, the fumarolic/alteration minerals at Vesuvius cannot be considered of economic relevance as a copper reservoir, this type of mineralizations are significant for copper crystal chemistry and for the knowledge of the mineralogical variants. The obtained datasets can be of interest for the knowledge of volcanic byproducts of copper ore deposits (i.e., porphyry copper systems) and of (base) metal segregation processes.

Optimal Extraction Methods Selection for Kakosa South Copper Ore Deposit Applying Modified Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Idea Solution Model

Kakosa South copper deposit is located about 450km northwest of Lusaka between Chingola and Chililabombwe. A comprehensive study of Kakosa South deposit was carried out. In Kakosa area the footwall aquifer rocks comprising sandstone and conglomerates which are thin and as such are not expected to represent major aquifers. Copper mineralisation is found in the upper quartzite and ore-shale. The inclination of the deposit ranges from 250 up to 350. The hangingwall formations above the upper quartzite are represented by a sequence of dolomite and shale formations. Based on Kakosa geotechnical analysis and rock mass classification, fuzzy TOPSIS approach was employed for the selection of optimal extraction techniques. FTOPSIS approach has precise and specific quantities which are used in order to establish criteria and option weights. Triangular fuzzy numbers were determined to represent semantic variables. The fuzzy numbers for Kakosa South parameters were used as input data in the decision making model and matched against the criteria required for the mining method. Applying FDM model, extraction techniques were ranked. The results indicated that open pit extraction technique was ranked first with 78.90 scores followed by sublevel stoping with 66.88 scores. It is concluded that the Kakosa South copper ore deposit can optimally be extracted by open pit mining up to transition depth and transit from open pit mining to underground mining employing sublevel stoping.

Innovative processing applicable to the oxidized nickel ores found in the Urals Region

The world’s nickel producers rely on the use of sulphide and oxidized nickel ores, which can vary greatly in terms of their characteristics and cost effectiveness. The Russian Federation is the world’s leading nickel producer, and it is currently exploiting copper and nickel sulphide ore deposits. At the same time, the country houses a considerable amount of oxidized nickel ores (ONOs), which are almost out of industrial use at the moment. At the same time, such ores serve as the main source of nickel abroad, and foreign countries have a vast experience of developing such deposits, and research is ongoing on the subject. One of the major issues related to the poor effectiveness of known techniques for processing ONOs found in Russia is a low concentration of nickel in such ores. This limits the applicability of certain solutions. It would be interesting to compare different ONO processing techniques and analyse their applicability to the deposits found in the Urals. The paper points out that, regardless of numerous pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes applicable to ONOs, developing new processes remains an important task, especially in application to the ONOs found in the Urals. Such new process should be able to yield high-grade nickel and cobalt products, make use of high-iron and high-magnesium ores, and ensure maximum recovery of commercial nickel and cobalt. The most promising process applicable to the ONOs found in the Urals includes either nitric acid leaching with further processing of leaching solutions or the use of combination processing schemes.

Development of the Tominsk and Mikheevsk copper ore deposits of the Southern Urals

Development of the Tominsk and Mikheevsk copper ore deposits of the Southern Urals

Albian–Cenomanian Orogenic Belt and Igneous Province of Pacific Asia

Geological data and about 300 precision geochronological and geochemical determinations are analyzed to identify the Albian–Cenomanian continental-margin orogenic belt and simultaneous igneous province of Pacific Asia. The orogenic belt represents a newly formed region of continental lithosphere that resulted from the deformation of mainly Jurassic–Early Cretaceous epioceanic terranes. The igneous province is made up of volcanic and intrusive complexes of mostly Albian age, which are syn-orogenic within the belt and post-orogenic beyond it. The igneous rocks include A-, I-, and S-type granitoids; adakites; and VAB- and OIB-type basalts and their intrusive analogues. Both the orogenic belt and the igneous province were formed in a tectonic setting of a transform continental margin between 110 and 95 Ma. The interval of 103–97 Ma became the peak of orogenic and magmatic activity caused by upwelling of the hot asthenospheric mantle through destructed stagnant slabs of the pre-Albian subduction. The Albian–Cenomanian age of the large gold, copper, tungsten, tin, and other ore deposits argues in favor of recognition of the corresponding metallogenic province. The first age data (100–97 Ma) are reported for the granite from the Malmyzh deposit within the Sikhote-Alin Ridge.

Investigation of Copper Recovery from a New Copper Ore Deposit (Nussir) in Northern Norway: Dithiophosphates and Xanthate-Dithiophosphate Blend as Collectors

The Norwegian mining industry is currently showing increasing interest in the production of metals. Recent research has demonstrated promising results identifying the high potential of the Nussir deposit for the production of copper and other valuable minerals. Mineralogical characterization for Nussir ore samples and their flotation concentrates was performed with optical microscopy and Zeiss automated mineralogy (Mineralogic) where the fine copper sulphide middlings were not completely recovered with a traditional sodium isobutyl xanthate (SIBX) collector. In the current study, dithiophosphate and a mixture of xanthate and dithiophosphate collectors’ interaction on copper and other gangue mineral components of the ore sample were investigated with zeta potential, quantitative adsorption, FTIR studies and Hallimond tube flotation. All the results for single mineral experiments confirmed the feasibility of selective copper sulphide flotation by disecondary butyl dithiophosphate (DBD) as collector. The blend of xanthate and dithiophosphate was chemically adsorbed as individual entities on the surface of the copper minerals via competitive adsorption. A systematic study with DBD and a mixed collector (SIBX and DBD) system was conducted on the coarse grind (−105 µm) of the Nussir ore sample, and the results showed a synergistic interaction between the two reagents. The beneficiated copper concentrate using this mixture of collectors is indeed of improved copper grade and recovery. The highest copper recovery in bench scale flotation was 95.3% with a concentrate grade of 19.4% Cu for DBD collector, whereas mixtures of dithiophosphate and xanthate collectors in the ratio of 3:1 resulted in the highest copper grade (24.7%) and recovery (96.3%).

Development of the Bozshakol and Aktogay copper ore deposits in Kazakhstan

Development of the Bozshakol and Aktogay copper ore deposits in Kazakhstan

Grain Size Distribution of Copper Ore as Means for Qualitative Evaluation of Its Lithological Composition

Information about the grain size distribution of a material plays an important role in optimizing production systems in various branches of industry. Analysis of particle size distribution in the run-of-mine material is frequently employed to verify the quality of drilling and blasting operations. Adequate software and improved grain size identification technologies not only help to monitor and evaluate the results of blasting operations, but also inform the selection of blasting methods which best correspond to particular geological and mining conditions both in surface mining and in underground mining. The accuracy of indirect, image-analysis methods used in the identification of grain size distribution motivated some pilot works aimed at using the grain size to evaluate the quality of a lithological complex copper ore deposit. Describing the run-of-mine material fed to the Ore Enrichment Plant (OEP) with the use of its grain size distribution may improve the techniques currently employed to optimize the energy efficiency of ore treatment processes. A model of ore flow in the underground transportation system, developed in the FlexSim environment, as part of the DISIRE research project, may prove a valuable optimization tool. This paper presents the results of preliminary research aimed at verifying whether grain size distribution of the run-of-mine material correlates with its lithological composition. The examinations covered grain size distribution in copper ore transported on belt conveyors in two mines in which the extracted ore has different lithology. The research was performed with the use of photogrammetric techniques and the Split Desktop 4.0 computer application. The advantage of the proposed technique is that it can be used at any location in the mine. The analysis was performed on the photographic material collected in situ at the “Lubin” mine. This material was supplemented with qualitative data stored in the Run-Of-Mine Ore Monitoring system (further: MOPRONA), as defined on the basis of channel samples collected on the day of tests.

The Secret Method and the State: Official Attitudes Towards Wet Copper Production in Song China

The Secret Method and the State:Official Attitudes Towards Wet Copper Production in Song China Alexander Jost Introduction As base material for the production of cash coins, copper was the most important metal in the Chinese monetary system, and hence for the political economy of China, at least until the dawn of the silver age in the sixteenth century. During the Northern Song period, what Mark Elvin deemed a "medieval economic revolution" manifested itself in such phenomena as a more diverse division of labor, commercialization, and urbanization, along with the increased use of monetary transactions instead of barter.1 This development was supported by a boom in copper production, which was tightly controlled by the state and employed as coinage to meet the aims of its monetary policy.2 When ore deposits began to be exhausted and production costs increased, the diminishing output of copper developed into a risk for the currency system [End Page 241] and the economy of the Song Empire. Relief was promised by early ideas of hydrometallurgy, methods that were known only to few as "secret methods" in the context of Daoist alchemy. With such processes as "gall copper" (dantong 膽銅), "steeping copper" (jintong 浸銅) or "leaching copper" (lintong 淋 銅), it became possible to use vitriol water (danshui 膽水, lit. "gall water"), an aqueous copper sulfate solution naturally occurring around weathered copper ore deposits, as well as vitriol earth (dantu 膽土, lit. "gall earth"), copper sulfate-bearing earth in similar locations, for the production of raw copper. These "wet copper methods" take advantage of a so-called "replacement reaction," through which copper precipitates on iron pieces placed in vitriol water and dissolves the iron, thereby turning the copper sulfate solution into an iron sulfate solution. The relatively pure copper obtained in this way could be refined with a relatively smaller expenditure of fuel than commonly mined copper ores worked with traditional methods of pyrometallurgy.3 For those controlling the affairs of the Northern Song state, who were responsible for procuring mint metals, this method of wet copper production became controversial from different perspectives. The large-scale application of secret methods from alchemistic contexts could be considered unethical or even dangerous, because the success of such methods was seen as being directly related to the morals and intentions of those who implemented them. Furthermore, the secrecy of these methods had a quasi-religious character in a Daoist context, so that publicly employing them could have entailed a heterodox religious challenge to Confucian learning. The seemingly inexplicable and spontaneous character of the process could also persuade statesmen that its end product could not be taken seriously as genuine copper and was just a fake. However, these doubts were eventually overcome. During part of the Southern Song, when the overall production of copper had already fallen dramatically, wet copper methods even provided the lion's share of China's copper production. How this shift in discourse and practice took place cannot be reconstructed from extant historical sources. Still, three exemplary situations, in which individuals interested in promoting this technology encountered high representatives of the state, can cast three spotlights into the dark [End Page 242] and provide insights into the development of official attitudes towards wet copper production in the Northern and Southern Song. In the first situation, between 1087 and 1089, a merchant suggested the application of the method to the Vice-Minister of Revenue and was harshly rejected. In the second instance, in 1094 a member of the Zhang 張 family, local elites from a copper-mining region in Jiangxi, gave a book about wet copper technology to the emperor, using careful words to justify its application, and was eventually entrusted with the establishment of the first wet copper facility in the empire. Third and finally, in 1210 the young official Hong Zikui sent a long prose poem about minting and metal production, in which he praised wet copper methods, to the court. His poem was well-received and he was employed thereafter as an instructor at the school for the imperial family (zongxue jiaoshou 宗學教授). From these three examples in the extant primary sources, the development of official attitudes towards wet copper production can be traced from being unacceptable, to becoming acceptable, and...

Assessment of Seismic Hazard in Relation to Rock-Burst Prevention Modifications in KGHM Polish Copper JSC Polkowice - Sieroszowice Mine, Poland

The Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine is one of three underground copper ore mines in Poland. These three mines belong to KGHM Polish Copper JSC, excavating one of the largest copper ore deposits in the world. The deposit is situated in the south-western part of Poland in the Lower Silesia province. Due to the specific and difficult geological-and-mining conditions in the three mines, seismic events occur which often result in an excavation serious damage defined as the rock-burst or elastic recovery. Such dynamic phenomena have been occurring since 1972 and have posed the most dangerous natural threats in underground workings. Therefore, the mining technology has to take the account of seismic hazard prevention. Numerous preventive measures adjusted to the conditions prevailing in the given operating field have to be applied so that the hazards can be mitigated, fought or limited. The appropriate choice of prevention activities must be preceded by measurements and observations, which constitute different methods for identifying, predicting and assessing the condition of the rock mass as well as for evaluating the protection effectiveness. In the Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine the rock-burst prevention involves: assessment of rock mass state and active, technological, and organizational-technical methods for combating the hazard. The active prevention consists in blasting works which provoke the rock mass to distress itself and thus to reduce its capability to accumulate elastic energy. The technological prevention embraces yielding the edges of the walls and pillars in the place of development, the extraction of the deposit with a wide opening of the front and the adjustment of the size of the technological pillar to the local geological and mining conditions. The organizational-technical measures introduce after-blasting waiting time and high hazard zones where the number of employees should be reduced. The influence of changes and improvements in the prevention activities on the seismic hazard was analysed and determined. The effectiveness of prevention methods was assessed in connection with their modifications, which concerned certain elements of active methods, the pillar size changes and alterations in the frequency of rock mass observations. Most of these modifications resulted from the operational progress and had a little impact on the seismic activity. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such alterations was calculated. The research was carried out for one mining division in the Polkowice-Sieroszowice mine over the period of 2013-2015 years. The increase in the effectiveness of seismic/rock-burst prevention in most cases resulted in reduction of seismic activity.

The impact of lithological variability of reservoir rocks on the quality parameters of the Cu-Ag deposit, Lubin–Głogów Copper District (LGCD)

The article discusses the lithological and facies development of the copper ore deposit in the Fore-Sudetic Monocline in the so-called depression at the top of the Weissliegend. The lithological variability and quality parameters of the deposit in the exploitation field located between the Central and Northern elevations of Rudna, where the deposit profile is described as “typical”, i.e. the Cu-Ag mineralization occurs in all three basic lithological types of copper ore, is analyzed. The lithological variability of ores in depression zones is the reason why the degree of mineralization and the parameters of the economic deposit are highly variable. The authors focused on the mutual relationships between the neighbouring lithological units and the development of the balance deposit. To illustrate the variability of deposit parameters closely related to the lithological and facies development of the host rocks, three-dimensional lithological and geochemical models and isoline maps of the thickness of individual specific copper ore types were made using geostatistical methods and based on field observations and sampling of the deposit.