Coolant Flow Rate Research Articles

Numerical study on heat dissipation of double layer enhanced liquid cooling plate for lithium battery module

The thermal management system's architecture is crucial for lithium batteries' efficiency and financial viability, predominantly influencing their security and longevity. We conceptualized a double-layer enhanced LCP, meticulously crafted to augment the heat dissipation capabilities of the battery assembly. This novel design targets the reduction of peak temperatures and pressure drops, fostering an even internal temperature profile. Comprehensively evaluate the performance of different settings of the coolant cooling system, and the monitoring points are strategically set in horizontal and vertical directions. Analyzing the data, it becomes evident that the system's vertical orientation significantly affects the battery module's peak temperature and temperature variation. Furthermore, extensive investigations were conducted on the impact of layout, coolant flow rate, and inlet temperature on thermal dissipation. Our findings indicate that the double-layer enhanced liquid cooling plates outperform conventional designs. There is a substantial 2.41 % decrease in the peak battery module temperature and an 80.6 % reduction in voltage decline. Operating at a flow rate of 10 g per second and an entry temperature of 25 °C, our liquid cooling system demonstrates superior cooling efficiency with minimal power consumption. It proficiently restrains the maximum battery module temperature below 30.43 °C and restricts temperature variance to merely 3.48 °C. The suggested approach in this research contributes to improved thermal equilibrium, diminishes temperature disparities and pressure concerns, thereby fostering the technological advancement of electric vehicle's liquid cooling systems.

Experimental study on system characteristics of vapor compression refrigeration system using small-scale, gas-bearing, oil-free centrifugal compressor

Small-scale refrigeration centrifugal compressors hold the potential for superior efficiency compared to currently used positive displacement compressors. However, traditionally, centrifugal compressors have been employed in large refrigeration systems with cooling capacity of several hundred kilowatts or more. Conversely, the application of small-scale centrifugal compressors in smaller refrigeration systems, with cooling capacity in the tens of kilowatts, has largely remained theoretical, lacking practical experimental studies. For a better understanding of the operational characteristics of such systems, this study constructed a 45 kW R245fa refrigeration system test bench based on the small-scale oil-free centrifugal compressor utilizing gas foil bearings. The experimental investigation analyzed the impact of refrigerant charge amount, compressor speed, and coolant flow rate on system performance. Results indicate that the system achieves its peak cooling capacity of 49.73 kW with a system COP of 3.64 at 65,000 rpm. Moreover, at 50,000 rpm, the system demonstrates its highest system COP of 4.23 with a cooling capacity of 26.07 kW. In comparison to traditional positive displacement compressor refrigeration systems, it exhibits higher energy efficiency. Additional simulation studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of substituting R1233zd(E) for R245fa on the system performance and to assess the feasibility of such a substitution.

Effect of applying serpentine channels and hybrid nanofluid for thermal management of photovoltaic cell: Numerical simulation, ANN and sensitivity analysis

Regarding the importance of thermal management of solar PV cells to achieve higher efficiency and electricity output, a novel configuration by use of serpentine channels for cooling is proposed and numerically investigated in the present article. Moreover, a hybrid nanofluid, (MWCNT)-Fe3O4/water, is employed as the coolant to investigate its potential in further improvement of thermal management. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is applied to numerically simulate the systems and investigate the impacts of different factors. Performance of the proposed configuration is compared with cooling channels with simple structure without nanofluids. Simulations results revealed that the employment of serpentine channels leads to modification in the thermal management of the cell compared with the simple channel. The maximum improvement rate in this condition compared with simple channels is around 9.63 % that is obtained in case of maximum mass flow rate of coolant and solar radiation intensity. Despite increment in pressure loss by using the serpentine channel compared with the simple channel, 2.6 ×10−3 W and 9.3 ×10−4 W, respectively, in mass flow rate of 0.003 kg/s for water, increase in the generated electricity is much more in this case. Furthermore, numerical results show that applying the hybrid nanofluid with 0.1 % concentration can cause slight reduction in the temperature compared with using water. Moreover, Group Method of Data Handling (GMDH) and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) neural network as intelligent methods used for estimation of the cell temperature and the maximum error for the developed model is approximately 1.1 % and 0.098 % for the GMDH- and MLP-based models, respectively. Finally, sensitivity analysis is implemented and it is shown that solar radiation intensity is the most influential factor on the cell temperature in condition of using serpentine channels while mass flow rate of the coolant has the minimum relevancy factor and consequently effect on the temperature of the solar cell.

Simulations on hybrid thermal management of mini-channel cold plate and PCM for lithium-ion batteries under discharging and thermal runaway conditions

In this study, we compared the performance of different structures of mini-channel cold plate (MCP) - phase change material (PCM) hybrid thermal management on discharge and thermal runaway. The heat transfer structures for them can be categorized into three types: (a) uncoupled, (b) semi-coupled, and (c) fully coupled. Among these, the semi-coupled design B exhibits the best performance. Specifically, in the high rate discharge condition, the structure can control the battery temperature at 44.37 °C at low coolant mass flow rate, and the temperature at 36.47 °C at high mass flow rate, while the temperature difference (TD) of a single cell does not exceed 2.01 °C. In a low-multiplier discharge zero-energy system, the pack temperature rise can be limited to no more than 10 °C in 35 °C environment. Under external short-circuit conditions, a lower coolant mass flow rate is sufficient to keep the pack temperature at 43.22 °C. Under internal short-circuit thermal runaway (TR), lower coolant mass flow rate can prolong the TR of the adjacent cell up to 521 s, and higher mass flow rate can completely inhibit the occurrence of TR. The objective of this study is to offer valuable references for the design and implementation of hybrid MCP-PCM cooling systems.

Thermal Management of Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Using Equivalent Circuit Model

The design of an efficient thermal management system for a lithium-ion battery pack hinges on a deep understanding of the cells’ thermal behavior. This understanding can be gained through theoretical or experimental methods. While the theoretical study of the cells using electrochemical and numerical methods requires expensive computing facilities and time, the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) offers a more direct approach. However, upfront experimental cell characterization is needed to determine the ECM parameters. In this study, the behavior of a cell is characterized experimentally, and the results are used to build a second-order equivalent electrical circuit model of the cell. This model is then integrated with the cooling system of the battery pack for effective thermal management. The Equivalent Circuit Model estimates the internal heat generation inside the cell using instantaneous load current, terminal voltage, and temperature data. By extrapolating the heat generation data of a single cell, we can determine the heat generation of the cells in the pack. With the implementation of the ECM in the cooling system, the coolant flow rate can be adjusted to ensure the attainment of a safe operating cell temperature. Our study confirms that 14% of pumping power can be reduced when compared to the conventional constant flow rate cooling system, while still maintaining the temperature of the cells within safe limits.

Boiling induced atomization of liquid film produced by oblique jet impingement on superheated wall

For the thermal management of industrial devices, a reduction in the net coolant flow rate by droplet dispersion from a liquid film is important because it can cause unexpected thermal failure. To understand the process of droplet dispersion from a liquid film better, we experimentally and theoretically evaluated the characteristics of boiling-induced atomization in a liquid film formed by oblique jet impingement on a superheated wall. Atomization processes were visualized using magnified high-speed imaging using a backlight technique. In this study, two types of droplets were observed using high-speed-magnification imaging. These were large droplets that disintegrated from the ligament formed on a relatively high-temperature wall, and small droplets from the ligament formed via bubble bursting in the nucleate boiling regime. For the atomization induced by nucleate boiling, larger droplets were produced via bubble bursting further downstream from the impingement point because the bubble size and liquid film thickness increased. Finally, the total volume of the droplets produced by nucleate boiling was estimated from the frequency of bubble bursting and droplet size measured from the visualization results. The estimation results suggest that the ratio of the total volume flow rate of the ejected droplets to the injection flow rate of the liquid was negligible (2%). Thus, most of the injected liquid eventually reached the wetting front of the sheet, separating it from the wall before drying out.

A topology optimization-based-novel design and comprehensive thermal analysis of a cylindrical battery liquid cooling plate

In previous studies, the designs of the liquid cooling channel for battery packs usually paid emphasis on optimizing the predefined cooling channels. This significantly restricts the possibilities for geometric modifications of cooling channels, consequently placing limitations on the potential improvement in heat dissipation performance. To address these limitations, this study proposes a Topology optimization-based-novel design and comprehensive thermal analysis of a cylindrical battery liquid cooling plate. The aim of using topology optimization is to overcome these constraints, enabling more flexible and global domain designs. Three different inlet–outlet configurations of the cooling plate structure were designed using a dual-objective optimization function. A comprehensive numerical analysis was conducted and the topology-optimized liquid cooling plate system was compared with two other cooling pipe liquid cooling systems. The effects of coolant flow rate, battery discharge rate, and cooling plate thickness and quantity on the heat dissipation performance of the liquid cooling system were investigated. Findings demonstrate that the topology-optimized cold plate system with four inlets and two outlets exhibits optimal heat dissipation performance. Increases in coolant flow rate, cold plate thickness, and quantity contribute to enhanced cooling performance of the liquid cooling system. Taking into account factors such as pump power consumption, system weight, and heat dissipation performance, a liquid-cooled system with three cold plates and an inlet flow rate of 2.5 × 10-6 m3/s is considered the optimal choice for cooling the battery pack in this study. Under the cooling of this cold plate system, at a coolant and ambient temperature of 25 °C and a discharge rate of 3C, the battery pack’s maximum temperature and temperature difference are 30.9 °C and 4.87 °C, respectively.

Research on soft measurement model of flow in bends of primary circuits of the nuclear power plant

When measuring the coolant flow in a nuclear power plant using the elbow flowmeter, the complex fluid-heat coupling environment at the measurement location and other factors will affect the accuracy of the flow measurement, and the uncertainty of the influencing factors on the flow measurement needs to be considered to improve the measurement accuracy. To address this problem, this paper adopts the finite element simulation method to simulate and analyze the flow-heat field of the bend section of the primary circuit of a nuclear power plant and optimizes the Optimal Cross-section selection of the pipeline for flow measurement. Based on the pressure values measured using the traditional method, temperature information is added, and a BP neural network bend pipe flow soft measurement model based on the whale optimization algorithm is established to quantify the effects of temperature and pressure on flow measurement. The experimental results show that compared with the traditional engineering empirical method, the average absolute percentage error measured by the soft measurement method is reduced from 2.57 % to 0.21 %, which realizes the accurate measurement of the coolant flow rate of the elbow pipe.

Reynolds number based optimization on liquid cooling system for permanent magnet synchronous motor of electric vehicle

The electric motor thermal management system (TMS) is a pivotal unit for electric vehicles (EVs). To study the factors affecting cooling performance and cooling efficiency of spiral housing water jacket (HWJ), simulations were carried out on a 150 kW jacked-cooled permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) with ethylene glycol & water (EGW) as coolant. The coupling between channel numbers (N) and coolant flow rate (Q) on winding average temperature (T) and pressure drop (P) were investigated focusing on the Reynolds number (Re) via analytical and numerical thermal models. The results indicated that the cooling performance was nearly the same for coolant under fully turbulent. Both the cooling performance and cooling efficiency were not conducive when N > 8, and meanwhile, N < 6 also hindered the heat extraction. Resorting to the investigation, a Re-based multi-objective optimization algorithm was put forward. Compared the optimized jacket N6Q12 (denoting 6 channels with 12 L per minute flow rate) with the sub-optimized N12Q6 at the same Re, winding average temperature T was found 6.5 deg C lower, and pressure drop P was reduced by up to 71.6 %.

Deep reinforcement learning based fast charging and thermal management optimization of an electric vehicle battery pack

Existing optimal strategies for fast-charging electric vehicle batteries are predominantly at the cell level. The proposed high-fidelity methods for extending available cell models to pack level are associated with a large computational burden, making real-world implementation impossible. Further, fast charging optimization and thermal management problems are dependent. That is, the cooling system reduces battery temperature, allowing for higher charging current, while optimal current minimizes the need for cooling and, in turn, reduces thermal system power consumption. There is a lack of studies where fast charging optimization and battery thermal management problems are jointly solved. Therefore, this paper proposes a simulation study using a deep reinforcement learning (RL) approach that concurrently solves fast charging and thermal management problems for a battery pack with low computational complexity. In this regard, we formulate each cell using an electro-thermal-aging model, which accounts for the heat exchange between adjacent cells. The electro-thermal-aging model plays the role of the environment for RL and is not the focus of novelty in this work. The RL agent is then trained to output the optimal charging current and coolant mass flow rate. Moreover, the proposed methodology is examined through a numerical study where the outperformance of our model is showcased by comparing it with baseline algorithms of model predictive control (MPC) and CC–CV. Consequently, three battery packs comprising 20, 444, and 7104 cells are used, respectively. We demonstrate that RL requires less than a second to finish the simulation for 20 cells, while MPC requires more than 80 min. In addition, RL keeps the cells’ core temperature below 33 °C, but MPC results reach 40 °C. The RL performance in charging packs with 444 and 7104 cells is then compared with that of CC–CV. In terms of computation time, RL and CC–CV are nearly the same, while regarding the average core and surface temperature of the cells as well as the cell aging, RL attains better outcomes, extending the battery pack’s life by up to two years after 1000 fast charging cycles.

Fuel cell temperature control based on nonlinear transformation mitigating system nonlinearity

The operational temperature significantly impacts the efficiency and lifespan of fuel cells. However, precise fuel cell temperature control poses a challenge due to the inherent nonlinear characteristics within the thermal management system. In this study, an in-depth quantitative analysis is undertaken to dissect the intricacies of nonlinearity embedded in temperature control. The results show that the nonlinearity arises from the nonlinear mapping between the thermostat opening and the distribution of coolant flow between the inner and outer loops. To address this nonlinearity, a pre-experiment is implemented to determine the flow ratio of the outer loop coolant flow rate concerning the total stack coolant flow rate under different thermostat openings. Furthermore, a robust temperature control method based on nonlinear transformation is designed, ensuring that stack coolant inlet temperature quickly tracks the target value when load currents change. The proposed control method is verified on a 5 kW fuel cell test bench, and the results demonstrate improvement in dynamic characteristics and enhanced system's robustness. Small-step tests indicate stable tracking of the stack coolant inlet temperature, with a steady-state error of less than 0.2 °C. Besides, under a large-load step response test, the thermostat exhibits a rapid response with merely a 0.6 °C temperature overshoot.

Flow and heat transfer characteristics of hydrocarbon fuel in lightweight C/SiC regenerative cooling combustor

To meet the requirements of higher thermal protection ability and lower structural weight of regenerative cooling structures in advanced hypersonic vehicles, carbon-fiber-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) composites with high permittable service temperatures and low densities are promising for application in thermal protection systems. In this study, four cylindrical regenerative cooling configurations applying C/SiC composites for a designated scramjet engine combustor are proposed, and the thermal protection performance under the influence of the cooling equivalence ratio (0.4∼1.0) and anisotropic thermal conductivity is studied. The results show that the C/SiC composites can significantly improve the heat resistance of the entire regenerative cooling structure owing to their relatively low thermal conductivity, which reduces the total heat flux transferred to the inner structure. The thermal protection ability can be maintained, whereas the coolant flow rate is reduced by 50%. C/SiC composites with higher thermal conductivities in the circumferential direction are beneficial for uniform temperature distribution. A flow distribution deterioration phenomenon caused by the thermal cracking of the coolant and the increasing flow resistance in the cooling channels can be observed under certain conditions, leading to a mass flow rate difference of 2.5 times among the cooling channels. Moreover, introducing C/SiC composites into the regenerative cooling structure design can significantly reduce the total structural weight by over 50% compared to traditional superalloys.

A PWR core power control using optimized PID controller with SQP based on control rod positioning and variable coolant flow rate

To ensure safety and stability, it is optimal for nuclear power plants to operate at their nominal power level. However, to meet the needs of power systems, NPPs must also be able to adjust their output for load-following purposes. This necessitates finding an effective control algorithmto maintain stable/safe operating conditions. The current study investigates the performance of PID controllersoptimized using Sequential Quadratic Programming algorithm and applied using two control techniques: control rod positioning and variable coolant flow rate. Simulation is done using model of four-loop Westinghouse PWR-1200 MW nuclear reactor. The proposed controller’s performance is evaluated in three scenarios:sudden control rod withdrawal, sudden change in coolant inlet temperature, and linear load tracking. The influences of model parametric uncertainty are also investigated. Simulation results revealed that the performance of the control algorithm applied using variable coolant flow rate was superior to the one usingcontrol rod positioning.

A facile design of porous heat sink optimized thermodynamically for thermo-hydraulic performance

Implementing active cooling through micro-channel heat sinks integrated with printed circuit heat exchangers demands a simultaneous enhancement of thermal and hydraulic performance, all while avoiding complex designs for ease of fabrication. We propose a porous wall embedded double-layered micro-channel heat sink, aiming to decrease the necessary pumping powers while maintaining a minimal impact on the heat transfer rate. Additionally, this design simplifies geometric complexities, enhancing ease of fabrication. We assessed the feasibility of different porous embedded double-layered micro-channel heat sink configurations by evaluating their thermal and hydraulic performance. Our analysis uniquely integrates the principles of the second law of thermodynamics with traditional first law analysis, providing novel insights into heat sink design. We discovered that configuring porous walls solely in the top layer of the double-layered micro-channel heat sink is the only viable option. Furthermore, our analysis reveals that embedding porous walls exclusively in the top layer reduces irreversibility due to frictional losses by 9.13 %, with a slight increase in irreversibility due to heat transfer by 1.55 %, in comparison to the solid double-layered micro-channel heat sink at a flow rate of 1000 ml/min. Moreover, at the same flow rate, compared to configuration with porous walls in both layers, the top layer configuration exhibits improved thermal performance by 17.28 %. Next, we demonstrate that while the first law analysis indicates the viability of the top porous configuration, the second law analysis limits its viability to a certain coolant flow rate range. Finally, we optimize the heat sink design and coolant flow rates, proposing a viable design by simply incorporating porous walls in only the top layer of double layered micro-channel heat sink, which otherwise proved to be non-viable.

Numerical simulations on hybrid thermal management of mini-channel cold plate and PCM for lithium-ion batteries

This study presents a novel hybrid thermal management system (HTMS) leveraging the mature technology of mini-channel cold plates (MCPs) and the superior thermal properties of phase change material (PCM). For single-cell scales to study their hybrid structures, it is found that the structure of 3channel and 5 mm PCM can reduce the battery temperature from 64.45 °C to 42.83 °C for a 2C discharge by 33.55 %. Furthermore, this study investigates the influence of coolant flow rate, temperature, and PCM thickness on the thermal management system. The findings indicate that HTMS can fulfill thermal management tasks that are not possible with the single-side PCM cooling system, while simultaneously saving 13 times the energy compared to the single-side MCPs cooling system to achieve the similar effect. For battery-pack scales to study their coupled structures, and the results show that the PCM alone effectively cools the battery, reducing its temperature from 55.34 °C to 42 °C at an ambient temperature of 35 °C during low-multiplication discharge. Furthermore, under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) condition, the battery pack temperature is maintained within 30 °C with a temperature difference of 0.03 °C, highlighting the exceptional performance of HTMS.

Pondering performance of hybrid microfiltration and membrane distillation (MF-MD) process for purifying chromium-contaminated groundwater: Optimization, fouling control, and long-term operation

Nowadays, a hazardous compound such as Chromium (Cr) in groundwater is an emerging issue worldwide due to its environmental and health impacts. Membrane distillation (MD) is a promising technique to purify Chromium-contaminated groundwater (CCG). Assisted microfiltration (MF) is lodged to overcome a major problem in MD, specifically membrane fouling. In this work, a hybrid MF-MD process is proposed with fouling control incorporated into long-term operation. Derived from the results, mixed cellulose ester with 0.1 μm of pore size (MCE0.1) at 3-min ultrasonication cleaning is chosen as the optimal parameter in the MF process, because of superior flux recovery ratio (FRR) with negligible flux deficiency of approximately 10 %. Permeate flux and total suspended solids (TSS) rejection of MCE0.1 was achieved around 440 Lm−2h−1bar−1 and > 90 %, respectively. The optimized parameters in MD were selected accordingly: feed temperature of 80 °C, and feed and coolant flow rates at 4 L/min. Eventually, the long-term batch operation was executed by obtaining average flux and permeate conductivity was 7.5 LMH and around 10 μs/cm, respectively. The Cr concentration in permeate was relatively stable around 0.05 mg/L, which meets the wastewater discharge limit of 0.5 mg/L.

Parametric investigation of flow and heat transfer on the reflooding quenching of a cylinder rod in forced convection

A reflooding quenching boiling experiment in forced convection was conducted to investigate the flow and heat transfer performance of a FeCrAl cylindrical rod under various subcooling degrees and flow rates. Employing image processing and inverse heat conduction problem (IHCP) methods, the research provides insights into vapor film thickness, quenching front propagation, wall temperature cooling rate and minimum film boiling temperature. Key observations include the presence of numerous extremely small bubbles dispersing around the rod and a third quenching front appears in the middle of the rod under higher subcooling condition at 25 °C, attributed to a thinner vapor film, smaller bubbles resulting from film rupture and the inertia of fluid flow. Within the experimental range, the impact of the subcooling degree on the fluid flow and heat transfer performance during the quenching boiling process is more pronounced than that of the coolant flow rate. The evolution of the vapor film indicates a substantial reduction of 78.76 % in film thickness and a significant increase of 185.71 % in propagation velocity with an increase in subcooling degree, while an elevation in flow rate lead to a 29.84 % decrease in film thickness and a 45 % increase in propagation velocity. Heat transfer performance benefits from increased subcooling degrees throughout the entire quenching boiling process, whereas flow rate impacts the heat transfer performance of film boiling alone. Furthermore, by incorporating the impact of flow velocity, a predictive formula for Tmin is established with an error margin within ±5 %.

Heat transfer characteristics of non-uniform channels flat heat pipe with micro pillar arrays and its application in power battery cooling

Heat pipe is a promising technology that can be applied to power batteries. However, it is associated with the challenge of countercurrent flow in gas–liquid two-phase working fluid. For this, this work proposes a non-uniform channels flat heat pipe with micro pillar arrays to form the internal “unidirectional flow”. The feasibility of such a strategy in alleviating the heat pipe burning dry is experimentally analyzed, along with the synergistic strengthening mechanism. Effects of heat pipe internal structures and micro pillar arrays area on thermal resistance and thermal conductivity are discussed. It is found that the maximum thermal conductivity of the optimized heat pipe could reach 3749.53 W·m−1·℃-1. On this basis, a battery cooling system coupled with the new heat pipe and localized serpentine passage cooling plate is then developed. The performance of the module is numerically evaluated by optimizing the key parameters including the passage height and operating conditions. It is shown that the system can control the average temperature of the battery pack within 27℃ at the end of 3C discharge with a coolant flow rate of 2 L/min and a channel structure of 7 mm × 7 layers. The maximum temperature difference between cells during the whole process is only 3.8℃.

Improving heat transfer in indirect liquid-based battery thermal management systems through turbulator-equipped conical flow paths

To guarantee the safe operation of Li-Ion Cells (LICs) in various applications, such as electric vehicles, an efficient Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) is necessary. The design of BTMSs, as documented in the literature, typically involves the use of cooling channels with uniform and smooth configurations. However, these configurations encounter the challenge of temperature non-uniformity in the battery module, which stems from elevated coolant temperatures along the flow direction. In this study, a 3D numerical analysis is conducted to develop a novel indirect liquid-based cooling system for the BTMS of a module with cylindrical LICs. The study explores the effects of conical cooling channels, both with and without twisted turbulators, across various coolant mass flows during a 2C discharge process of LICs. Within the studied ranges, diverging cooling channels improve the overall thermal and hydraulic performance of the BTMS by an average of 40%, increasing the heat transfer coefficient by a maximum of 32.6%, and decreasing pressure drop by up to 35.1%. The application of turbulators proves effective in reducing the maximum temperature difference within the LICs, demonstrating a decrease of approximately 34.2% at the minimum mass flow rate and 74.4% at the maximum mass flow rate. This emphasizes the more substantial impact of turbulator utilization at higher coolant mass flow rates. An increased coolant flow rate leads to a significant enhancement of the heat transfer coefficient, ranging from 70.5% to 79.0% for the BTMS incorporating turbulators. Moreover, the study highlights a more pronounced impact of increasing mass flow rates in the BTMS designed with converging cooling channels compared to those designed with diverging channels. Finally, the results of this analysis demonstrate that the proposed system is capable of efficiently regulating the temperature of the entire battery module, ensuring that it consistently maintains a normal and safe operational range suitable for vehicular applications (below 40 °C).

Evaluation of the cooling flow rate of the cooled steam turbine for a novel H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; cycle

Evaluation of the cooling flow rate of the cooled steam turbine for a novel H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; cycle