Cooking Process Research Articles

Fast DPPH antioxidant activity analysis by UHPLC-HRMS combined with chemometrics of tempeh during food processing.

Tempeh is an antioxidant-rich soybean fermentation product from Java, Indonesia. Cooking methods have an impact on the nutritional value and bioactivity of food. This study aims to investigate how the cooking process affects the metabolites and antioxidant activity in tempeh using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). A nontargeted UHPLC-HRMS metabolomics and chemometric analysis were used to evaluate metabolite profiles and antioxidant activity changes because of food processing in tempeh. The score plots of tempeh produced by boiling and frying methods displayed a distinct separation from raw tempeh, revealing that the cooking process altered the metabolite composition of tempeh. Due to processing, L-glutamic acid, L-pyroglutamic acid, DL-glutamine, and D-( +)-proline became the most affected metabolites on tempeh. There were 70 metabolites that showed antioxidant activity using the DPPH assay; 23 metabolites significantly differ from DPPH and control for antioxidant activity for all processing tempeh. Metabolites with significantly different antioxidant activity in raw and processed tempeh were dominated by flavonoids, vitamin E, and bioactive lipids. The DPPH antioxidant assay using UHPLC-HRMS is promising as a fast antioxidant assay by simplifying the conventional DPPH antioxidant assay. Further, it can be used to identify the name of metabolites responsible for its antioxidant activity.

How to cook pasta? Physicists view on suggestions for energy saving methods

Physics Nobel laureate Giorgio Parisi recently proposed a novel approach to cooking pasta that is more energy-efficient: Bring the water to a boil, add the pasta, cover the pot with a lid, and turn off the heat source. This heat-off-lid-on (hofflon) method saves energy. Other suggestions recommend soaking dried pasta in cold water to shorten the cooking process. However, there is a paucity of research examining the impact of different cooking methods on pasta texture and quality. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the effects of different cooking methods on the texture and strength of the pasta, a series of experiments were conducted. The experiments demonstrated significant variations in mechanical properties, adhesiveness, and cohesion. The hofflon method requires a longer cooking time due to the gradual decline in temperature. The process of soaking increases the water content of the pasta prior to cooking, which subsequently affects the behavior of proteins and starch when heated. These effects influence the manner in which proteins undergo alteration, the formation of cross-links, and the gelatinization of starch. Pasta prepared using the hofflon method exhibits reduced cohesion and softness, resulting in a texture that is softer and more mushy than that of al dente pasta. Presoaked samples display increased stickiness and a mushy texture when compared to pasta prepared using the classic method and hofflon pasta. The results of this study indicate the promise of developing straightforward models to illuminate the unique roles of proteins and starch during the structural transformation.

Techno-functional, physicochemical and thermal characteristics of black chickpeas aquafaba under ultrasound pre-processing

Aquafaba is the liquid that remains from the cooking of beans in the canning industry, generally discarded as wastewater. This research aimed to optimize ultrasound pretreatment to enhance this by-product and introduce it as a high-added value product (known as liquid gold) in the food industry. The results showed that with the increase in the sonication time and amplitude, the extraction efficiency, soluble protein content, the density, and dry matter content of black chickpeas aquafaba increased significantly (p<0.05). The results also demonstrated that foaming ability (in short ultrasonication times) and foam stability significantly increased with higher amplitude. The results of numerical optimization showed that ultrasound pre-treatment for 30 minutes with an amplitude of 72% on black chickpeas before the cooking process created the best conditions for aquafaba extraction. Under these optimized conditions, the results yielded the highest values so that extraction efficiency, protein content, density, dry matter, foaming ability, and foam stability were 212.07%, 3546.7 mg/kg, 1.038 g/mL, 4.76%, 243.57%, and 44.50% respectively. Thermogravimetric and FT-IR analysis showed that the pre-sonication process not only makes aquafaba thermally stable, but also does not cause any structural changes in its chemical components. According to the favorable physicochemical characteristics of aquafaba, this product can benefit the food industry. It can be a material with high added value, profitable for the canning industry.

Intelligence data acquisition based on embedded system in Chinese cuisine cooker (CCICR V1.0)

The Chinese cooking process, intricate and diverse, encompasses a wide range of dishes, generating substantial data that often poses significant challenges for automation. To address these challenges, this paper introduces a versatile, highly reliable, user-friendly, and intelligent data recorder specifically designed for Chinese cuisine-the Chinese Cuisine Intelligent Cooker Recorder-V1.0 (CCICR-V1.0). This device is intended to record data generated during the cooking process and provide essential support for intelligent cooking robot systems. The core of CCICR-V1.0 is a STM32 microcontroller, equipped with sensors that monitor temperature, pressure, and attitude. These sensors facilitate the intelligent collection of data related to dishes, ingredients, and the movements of cookware throughout the cooking process. To ensure efficient data acquisition and storage, CCICR-V1.0 employs a multi-task data buffering storage method that effectively allocates CPU resources. NAND Flash is used as the storage medium, guaranteeing secure storage, management, and preservation of high-frequency, multi-channel data. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of CCICR-V1.0 in achieving multi-channel, high-frequency data acquisition and storage in complex environments. This leads to an increase in automation efficiency of 89.9%. The weighing module demonstrates a maximum relative error of only 0.288%, while the attitude sensor experiment shows an attitude information error of just 0.22°C. Furthermore, the non-contact infrared temperature measurement module exhibits impressive performance with a maximum absolute error of 0.258∘C\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$^\\circ C$$\\end{document} and a maximum relative error of 0.88%. Notably, this measurement module has achieved a cost reduction of approximately 91.7% and an accuracy improvement of around 40%. Additionally, the response time of CCICR-V1.0 is less than 3 ms. With its ability to effectively capture data related to Chinese cooking, CCICR-V1.0 holds commercial value for widespread adoption and application in the field of intelligent cooking.

Effect of Cooking Method on The Physicochemical Properties of Tomatoes

The cooking process influences the chemical and physical changes in food due to the increase in temperature. It also alters the appearance, taste, color, and texture of food either positively or negatively. Therefore, this study was done to determine the effect of cooking methods on the physicochemical properties and the retention of antioxidant content in tomatoes. The cooking conditions used were boiling at 100°C for 6 min, frying at 230°C for 4.5 min, baking at 175°C for 25 min, and cooking with an air fryer at 200°C for 15 min. Physicochemical characteristics (cooking loss, ash, crude fiber, firmness, color, pH value &amp; total soluble solids) were measured. Antioxidant properties (antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, lycopene content, and ascorbic acid content) were also determined. There were significant differences (p&lt;0.05) for ash, color, pH value, and total soluble solid, while no significant difference (p&gt;0.05) was observed for cooking loss, crude fiber, and firmness. Different cooking methods had shown a significant difference (p&lt;0.05) against all tests for determining antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, lycopene content, and ascorbic acid content. Air frying is the best cooking method to preserve the physicochemical properties of tomatoes, compared to other methods employed. Hence, it can be concluded that different cooking methods have different effects on the physicochemical properties of tomatoes.

Wheat Flour Pasta Combining Bacillus coagulans and Arthrospira platensis as a Novel Probiotic Food with Antioxidants.

Arthrospira platensis (Ap) and Bacillus coagulans (Bc) have been successfully used to develop functional foods, but a combination of both regarding functional implications in nutritional value and antioxidant capacity has not been explored. This work aimed to develop an artisanal wheat flour pasta with egg using 5% A. platensis and 1% B. coagulans GBI 6068 (labeled as Bc+Ap). Uncooked pasta was characterized regarding nutritional value; furthermore, total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity by 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), pigment content, colorimetry assay, textural profile analysis, buffering capacity, and probiotic viability were carried out on uncooked and cooked pasta to assess the changes induced by cooking. The Bc+Ap pasta showed enhanced nutritional value with a significant increase in protein content (30.61%). After cooking, the pasta showed increased phenolic content (14.22% mg GAE/g) and antioxidant capacity (55.59% µmol Trolox equivalents/g and 10.88% µmol Fe+2/g) for ABTS and FRAP, respectively, as well as pigment content (6.72 and 1.17 mg/100 g) for chlorophyll a+b and total carotenoids, respectively, but relative impacts on colorimetric parameters in contrast to control (wheat flour pasta). Furthermore, Bc+Ap showed improved firmness (59%, measured in g), buffer capacity (87.80% μmol H+(g × ΔpH)-1), and good probiotic viability (7.2 ± 0.17 log CFU/g) after the cooking process.

The Impact of Fat Contents and Different Cooking Processes on the Potential Health Concerns of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Chicken Doner Kebabs

This study investigated the effects of different fat contents and cooking techniques on the presence of PAHs in chicken doner kebabs, as well as the dietary exposure and potential health risks for the Turkish population. The methodology for the detection and quantification of 16 PAH compounds in chicken doner samples using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-UV) was validated. The limit of detection (LOD), quantification (LOQ), recovery, and relative standard deviation (RSD) were found to be 0.44%–1.14%, 1.45%–3.56%, 63.12%–101.50%, and 0.14%–3.16%, respectively. Our findings revealed that, among the analyzed compounds, BaA was the most dominant PAH compound, and that the charcoal cooking technique resulted in the highest accumulation of both BaP and PAH4 concentrations in chicken doner kebabs. Additionally, a significant increase in PAH levels was observed in relation to higher fat content. Moreover, it was found that the estimated daily intake (EDI) of BaP and PAH4 was higher in charcoal-grilled, well-done, high-fat chicken doner samples. As a result, the fact that the Margin of Exposure (MOE) values calculated for chicken doner samples across the Turkish population are above 10,000 indicates a low level of concern.

Development of an exposure assessment industrial model for Bacillus cereus in rice matrix containing insect chitosan.

An exposure assessment model for industrial use has been developed by using kinetic data from inactivation and growth of Bacillus cereus spores. It can provide a valuable tool for estimating the concentration of B. cereus after a storage period of 24 h at a specified temperature (20 °C) and for an estimation of the percentage of contaminated portions according to the input data of the model. This model considers a rice-derived product that has undergone a standard cooking process at 95 °C for 20 min. According to the results, the presence of chitosan affects the final microbial load after storage, potentially serving as an additional control measure in the event of cold chain abuse or break. Chitosan's antimicrobial properties likely play a role in reducing microbial growth during storage, thereby contributing to enhanced food safety. In practical terms, this suggests that incorporating chitosan into food products, especially those susceptible to microbial contamination like rice derivatives, could help mitigate risks associated with temperature abuse or cold chain disruptions. By acting as a protective barrier against microbial proliferation, chitosan offers a preventive measure to maintain product quality and safety throughout the supply chain. Considering two scenarios, 104 or 107 as initial contamination the model estimated that the 55 and 100% of portions would be respectively contaminated, according to a Performance Criteria of 4 log reductions.

Microbial Food Safety of Sous Vide Cooking Processes of Chicken and Eggs.

Sous vide cooking implies cooking foods, packed under vacuum conditions, at controlled temperatures (<80 °C). Although this method opens a new window of culinary possibilities, it also involves a series of risks, mainly microbiologically related, that must be assessed. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effectiveness of SV processes to inactivate three important foodborne pathogens (Campylobacter, Salmonella, and Clostridium spores) in chicken breast and eggs (omelet). For this purpose, two levels of inoculation (102 and 106 CFU/g), two different recipes, and two distinct treatments (with and without storage) for each food were studied. After treatments and storage, the corresponding microbiological counts were performed with standard methods. Average inactivation rates observed were 1.70, 4.82, and 4.34 log for Clostridium spores, Campylobacter, and Salmonella, respectively. No significant differences in microbial inactivation were perceived between the different recipes (food composition) or treatments, except for Clostridium spores, which showed a higher inactivation rate (2.30 log) when samples were stored. In general, preliminary results showed that, although appropriate levels of inactivation are reached for vegetative pathogenic cells, in some cases (spores in breast and Salmonella in eggs), the remaining microbiological risks should be considered and further studied, especially if long-term storage is planned.

Mineral nutrients and protein composition of non-conventional food plants (Pereskia aculeata Miller, Sonchus oleraceus L. and Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott)

Ora-pro-nóbis (Pereskia aculeata Miller), taioba (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) and serralha (Sonchus oleraceus L.) are non-conventional food plants found in Brazil that could be included in the human diet, but they are not produced on large-scale. However, they have risen in popularity, due to their association with high nutritional values. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the mineral and protein composition of raw and cooked plants from assorted locations. The cooking process did not affect the mineral and protein results on dry mass basis. Furthermore, high variations in mineral composition were observed for different locations. Comparing the results with conventional plants composition databases, the protein content of ora-pro-nobis and taioba were significantly higher than values of spinach. Taioba was the plant that presented more minerals with higher concentrations when compared to the conventional plants. The protein contribution per serving of these plants to the Dietary Reference Intake ranged from 1.1 % to 7 %. Regarding the minerals, cooked taioba can be a source of Ca, Mg, and Cu and high in Mn (11–33 % to DRI). Cooked ora-pro-nobis can be classified as a source of Ca, Mg and Mn (16–29 % to DRI). While the contributions from serralha were less than 11 % of the DRI. These results demonstrate that these non-conventional food plants are an alternative food source that could be better exploited, improving dietary diversity.

Effects of cooking and market classes on nutritional and antioxidant properties of dry bean flours and soluble dietary fiber-rich fractions

Dry beans are a rich source of proteins, starch, dietary fiber, and phenolic compounds, thus exhibiting potential health benefits. Fractionating dry beans, especially soluble dietary fiber (SDF), could be considered a valuable functional food ingredient. This study investigated the effects of pinto and black dry bean market classes and atmospheric pressure cooking on the physicochemical attributes of dry bean flours and the extraction and characterization of SDF-rich fractions. Cooking significantly (p < 0.05) increased the dietary fiber content, altering the macronutrient profile. Raw flours exhibited higher levels of extractable phenols and antioxidant capacity, while cooked flours had more hydrolyzable phenols and associated antioxidant activities. Pinto beans were found to have higher levels of slowly digestible starch (23.76%) and resistant starch (5.24%) compared to black beans (20.63% and 3.22%, respectively). The SDF-rich fraction from cooked flours showed a reduced residual protein content and included pectic polysaccharides, hemicelluloses, and raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs), with cooking affecting their molecular weight distribution. These fractions demonstrated shear-thinning behavior and temperature-dependent viscosity. The study highlights the significant influence of market class and cooking process on the nutritional and antioxidant properties of dry beans, suggesting their potential contributions to dietary health.

Thermal Inactivation of Cells of Salmonella spp. in Pot Pies Prepared With a Beef, Chicken, or Meat Alternative Filling, With and Without Gravy, During Cooking in a Convection Oven

Cooking parameters elaborated in the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety and Inspection Service Cooking Guideline for Meat and Poultry Products (Appendix A) were evaluated for inactivation of Salmonella spp. in pot pies. To prepare dough for pot pies, flour, butter, sugar, salt, and water were mixed, portioned into balls (65 or 85 g each), flattened (ca. 13 or 15 cm diameter, ca. 0.5 cm thick), and hand-pressed into pans (ca. 19.4 cm diameter). Next, a 100-g portion of beef, chicken, or a meat alternative, with or without added gravy (55 g of protein and 45 g of gravy), was inoculated with a cocktail of Salmonella spp. (ca. 6.5 or 7.9 log CFU/g of filling) and distributed onto the pie crust. After covering with a 65-g sheet of dough, pies were heat sealed in nylon polyethylene bags and stored at −20 °C for up to 72 h. Frozen pot pies containing a beef or meat alternative filling were cooked in a convection oven to an internal temperature of 57.8 °C (136°F) instantaneous, 62.8 °C (145°F) and held for 4 min, 67.2 °C (153°F) and held for 34 sec, or 71.1 °C (160°F) instantaneous; whereas chicken pot pies were cooked to an internal temperature of 57.8 °C (136°F) instantaneous, 62.8 °C (145°F) and held for 13 min, 67.2 °C (153°F) and held for 96 sec, or 73.9 °C (165°F) instantaneous. Cells of Salmonella spp. were recovered from uncooked or cooked pot pies by stomaching each pie in peptone water and enumerating pathogen levels via direct plating. Cooking delivered Salmonella spp. reductions of ca. 3.6 to ≥6.3 log CFU/g of pot pie. With few exceptions, when pathogen levels decreased to below detection by direct plating (0.5 log CFU/g of pot pie), cells of Salmonella were not recovered by enrichment. In addition, there were minimal differences in the aw and moisture content of the protein filling before and after cooking, suggesting that enclosing the meat, poultry, or meat alternative filling within a dough wrapping maintains moisture in the filling during the cooking process.

AI-Enhanced Smart Cooking Pot: A Culinary Companion with Intelligent Sensing

This research introduces SmartCook, an avant-garde kitchen appliance that amalgamates sensor technologies, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning to redefine the art of cooking. The device employs an array of sensors, including temperature, moisture, infrared, proximity, electronic tongue, and electronic nose, ingeniously positioned in the lid with foodgrade silicon transparent sealing. This design ensures a non-intrusive manner of sensing, preserving the integrity of both the food and the sensors. SmartCook operates in two modes: Cooking Mode, where experienced users store their personalized cooking patterns, and Guide Mode, designed for beginners seeking expert guidance. The AI processing unit, analysing vapours produced during cooking, intricately captures the nuances of smell, texture, timing, temperature, and moisture to create and store unique recipe patterns for each prepared meal. The addition of a texture-sensing camera placed in the lid, also sealed with foodgrade silicon, enhances the system’s capability to analyze and replicate food textures. This innovative approach transforms SmartCook into a comprehensive, guided, and customizable culinary assistant. The system’s safety mechanisms, including automatic shut-off, prioritize user safety throughout the cooking process. SmartCook revolutionizes home cooking, transforming it into an interactive, guided, and enjoyable journey. With its emphasis on replicating the unique patterns of individual cooks, SmartCook introduces a novel approach to the culinary arts, empowering users to virtually learn and recreate meals from their favourite chefs. This research presents a ground-breaking contribution to the evolving landscape of smart kitchen appliances, offering users an innovative and enjoyable way to explore the world of gastronomy.

THE EFFECT OF ADDING DIFFERENT ADDITIVES ON ACRYLAMIDE CONTENT AND ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY OF INNOVATIVE FUNCTIONAL CEREAL PRODUCTS

Acrylamide (AA) is a chemical pollutant that naturally forms in starchy food products during high-temperature cooking, including frying, baking, and industrial processing, at +120°C and low humidity. The main chemical process that causes this is the Maillard reaction, the same reaction that "browns" food and affects its taste. AA is formed from sugars and amino acids (mainly one called asparagine ASN) that are naturally present in many foods. AA is found in crisps, chips, bread, biscuits and coffee. (Nematollahi et al., 2020). The health impact of acrylamide has been the subject of concern and research for several years. Research on laboratory animals has shown that exposure to high levels of acrylamide can cause a variety of adverse effects, including damage to the nervous system and an increased risk of some types of cancer. It is important to note that these studies often involve the administration of acrylamide at significantly higher doses than are typically found in food (Başaran et al., 2023). Various supplements such as fennel, nigella, pomegranate, wild berries, cumin, black cumin, bamboo leaves and many other supplements have an effect on reducing acrylamide levels, which comes from their antioxidant activity (Al-Ansi et al., 2019; Ashkezari &amp; Salehifar, 2019; Borczak et al., 2022; Abdel-Shafi Abdel-Samie et al., 2011; Li et al., 2012). Besides impacting the acrylamide level, these supplements have antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity, immune support, and other health benefits that make products with added ingredients like these functional products.

Variation of volatile flavor substances in salt-baked chicken during processing

Salt-baked chicken was a traditional delicacy of Guangdong, but the effects of volatile flavor compounds at different stages of its processing remained unclear. This study utilized sensory analysis, e-nose, and GC–MS to investigate the changes in volatile flavor compounds during the processing of salt-baked chicken. The results indicated significant alterations in volatile flavor compounds at different stages of processing, resulting in flavor transitioning from the original flavor to salty, scorched, and fatty flavor. 75 volatile compounds were identified by GC–MS, with 15 key flavor compounds highlighted based on OAV, including aldehydes, alcohols, terpenes, heterocycles and esters. The research revealed the dynamic changes in volatile flavor compounds throughout the cooking process of salt-baked chicken and emphasized the important role of salt-baked in shaping its distinctive taste profile. These findings provided a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for enhancing and optimizing the authentic taste of this traditional dish, while fostering innovative advancements in prepared cuisine.

Quality characteristics and fibrous structure formation mechanism of walnut protein and wheat gluten meat analogues during high-moisture extrusion cooking process

Blending two or more materials to create better high-moisture meat analogues has been actively studied in the food science and technology field. Walnut protein is a high-quality plant-based protein resource, yet its full potential remains underexploited. Thus, this study focused on exploring the quality characteristics and fibrous structure formation mechanism of walnut protein (WP) and wheat gluten (WG) meat analogues during high-moisture extrusion cooking process. Results showed that the optimized WP and WG-blended high-moisture meat analogues exhibited a more pronounced anisotropic and oriented fibrous structure. The blending of WP and WG can protect the molecular chains from the thermal transition, and promote the aggregation of protein molecules mainly by enhancing the interaction between hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds, increasing the apparent viscosity and forming protein subunits with larger molecular weights (>100 kDa) to stabilize the newly formed conformation. Additionally, the content of α-helix was the highest among the secondary structures. This study provides a theoretical basis for the application of WG and WP to produce HMMAs with rich fibrous structures.

Use of thermophysical properties to characterize cooking trends of slow- and regular-darkening pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

ABSTRACT This study investigated the thermophysical and cooking quality properties of both slow-darkening (SD) and regular-darkening (RD) pinto bean varieties, establishing genetic cooking variability in cooking traits and their interrelationships. The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the beans at 80, 90 and 100°C were determined. Thermal and physical properties were evaluated for both SD and RD pinto bean varieties at their respective EMC. Cooking quality properties, such as water absorption capacity and cooking time, were also assessed. Principal component and cluster analyses were used to establish interactive effects of the cooking-related traits to the cooking process. Bulk density and cooking time were significantly and negatively correlated (p < .05). The SD beans exhibited better cook characteristics compared to RD beans. Bulk density was the most influential trait during cluster formation. The findings highlight that physical and thermal properties play a critical role in the cooking process.

The Effects of Fire in Human Life and in the Cuisine from the Paleolithic to the Modern Age

Humans existed on earth 2.5 million years ago and took control of fire after their evolutionary transformations. As a result of consuming cooked meat, there was an increase in the size of the human brain, the use of hands and mental skills. With the beginning of the Neolithic period, the increasing bio-cultural and socio-cultural transformation of humans also affected food preparation, storage and kitchen tools. People started to produce to prepare and consume food, hunt animals and facilitate agriculture. In the past, in addition to frying meat, they found different cooking methods using tools such as fire pits, clay balls and earthenware. The food processing and preservation methods developed and widely used from the Paleolithic period to the Neolithic period are cooking, grinding, drying, salting, seasoning, cheese-yoghurt, oil/sugar storage and fermentation processes, which are explained in detail in the article. As a result of the research, it was seen that all of these methods interacted with fire (and heat) to a greater or lesser extent. The (basic) cooking methods of food include (dry heat) frying, roasting, smoking (smoking), (wet heat) boiling, simmering and perhaps steaming. Changes in human eating habits appear to affect body size, digestion and health conditions.

Smoke Points: A Crucial Factor in Cooking Oil Selection for Public Health

: Cooking oils and fats play a significant role in our daily diet and culinary practices by enhancing flavours, textures, and nutritional value. However, overheating these fats can compromise the quality and safety of cooked foods. When oils and fats exceed their smoke points, they undergo chemical breakdown, producing volatile compounds, off-flavours, and undesirable odors, including harmful substances like small chain fatty acids, trans fats, acrylamides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. It is crucial to avoid overheating oils to mitigate the formation of these toxic substances and instead opt for those with higher smoke points for high-temperature cooking methods. The smoke point, indicating the temperature at which visible smoke is emitted, serves as a critical indicator of thermal stability and suitability for various cooking oils and fats. Therefore, understanding and considering the smoke points of different oils and fats are essential for maintaining food quality and safety in culinary practices. This review consolidates existing knowledge on the smoke points of various oils and fats and methods for determining smoke points, providing a list of fifty-one oils and fats with their respective smoke points and highlighting their applications in cooking. By considering the smoke point, chefs, cooks, and food manufacturers can select oils that optimize cooking, frying, taste, texture, flavour enhancement, salad dressings, marinades, baking, and overall safety in their culinary practices. Mindfulness of the smoke point helps prevent the degradation of nutritional value and the generation of harmful compounds during the cooking process.

Study of Ready-to-eat Omelette enriched with dried and freeze-dried vegetables

Two different techniques, classic drying and a patented, non-thermal and non-invasive physical technology were used to treat vegetables in order to obtain food ingredients, without producing waste. These ingredients were used to enrich Italian omelettes that were cooked comparing pan and oven methods. The evaluation of the chemical and microbiological features and sensory characteristics of Italian omelettes was obtained immediately after the cooking process and after 1 and 2 months of storage at −20 °C. Specifically, the evaluation of moisture content, pH, total polyphenolic content, antioxidant activity and microbiological assessment were carried out to ponder how cooking procedures, the use of different vegetables and storage period could influence the structure and properties of the omelettes. The sensorial analysis was also carried out immediately after cooking the omelettes and after a re-heat process in the microwave for the samples stored at −20 °C, to understand the feasibility of the storage and how the use of the vegetable ingredients influenced the taste and quality of the samples. Results showed that the use of vegetables increased the content of total polyphenols and the antioxidant activity also during the frozen storage, especially for the omelettes cooked in the pan with the addition of vegetable powders from the patented technology. Moreover, a lower decrease of the moisture content highlighted better sensorial features. Finally, the microbiological assessment showed that the use of these ingredients decreased the microbial contamination during the storage.