Conversion Of Sunlight Research Articles

Computational Design of (B)Chl Models: Structural and Chemical Modifications toward Enriched Properties.

The functional units of natural photosynthetic systems control the process of converting sunlight into chemical energy. In this article, we explore a series of chemically and structurally modified bacteriochlorophyll and chlorophyll pigments through computational chemistry to evaluate their electronic spectroscopy properties. More specifically, we use multiconfigurational and time-dependent density functional theory methods, along with molecular dynamics simulations, to compute the models' energetics both in an implicit and explicit solvent environment. Structural modifications aimed at reducing the planarity of the macrocycle through alkyl-bridge anchoring reveal the significant role of the curvature in fine-tuning spectral properties, which mimics protein scaffold effects on naturally occurring pigments. Furthermore, chemical substitutions with a carbonyl group show potential for expanding absorption spectra toward the blue region, while incorporating an additional double bond decreases absorption efficiency. These insights lay the groundwork to design novel synthetic pigments, with potential applications in artificial light-harvesting systems and more efficient photovoltaic devices.

(Invited) Modification of P-N Heterointerface of Ternary CuGaSe2 Photochaodes for Efficient Water Reduction Under Sunlight Irradiation

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) conversion of sunlight into a chemical energy of hydrogen (H2) through water splitting has been studied extensively to achieve production of storable and transportable energy sources from sunlight. Reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) using water (H2O) as an electron source into a more reduced chemical species is also an important subject for utilization of solar energy because of its possible production of energy-rich carbonaceous compounds without the use of fossil resources. Among the various possible systems, a coupling of two different semiconductor electrodes termed a Z-scheme system has been studied as an attractive concept in recent years. For the photocathode side in the Z-scheme system, Cu-based selenides and sulfides and their mixed forms of selenosulfides crystallized in chalcopyrite and kesterite structures, which were originally used as photovoltaic materials, were shown to be effective upon modifications on their surfaces for inducing water reduction. A ternary chalcopyrite CuGaSe2 is one of the attractive materials for this application because of its wide bandgap energy (1.67 eV) for achieving a positive onset potential for water reduction. However, compared to other narrow-gap chalcopyrite- and kesterite-based systems such as CIGS (Cu(In,Ga)Se2, a marked improvement of PEC performance over the CuGaSe2-based photocathode has not been achieved. In this study, PEC activity for water reduction (H2 liberation) over a co-evaporated CuGaSe2 compact thin film modified with a CdS layer and Pt deposits under simulated sunlight (AM 1.5G) radiation was evaluated, specifically focusing on the impact of a Cu-deficient layer (CDL) loaded on the top part of the CuGaSe2 film. It was found that the intentional loading of the CDL with an appropriate thickness was effective for achieving a large current flow and relatively positive photocurrent onset. The half-cell solar-to-hydrogen efficiency (STH) reached 6.6% over the best photocathode used. Moreover, the highest photocurrent onset potential of more than 0.9 V vs. RHE was achieved over the photocathode based on the CuGaSe2 film having an extremely thick CDL (200 nm) with a relatively thick CdS layer (90 nm) due to efficient spatial separation of photogenerated carriers, though the thick CDL was also detrimental for efficient photoabsorption of CuGaSe2, resulting in appreciable decrease in photocurrent densities when compared to those obtained over photocathodes based on CuGaSe2 films covered with a relatively thin CDL. Furthermore, an appreciable increase in current density was observed by applying intentional doping of rubidium (Rb), leading to the best STH of 8%. Although further investigation is required, increase in porosity at the heterointerface induced by the Rh doping would contribute for the result. Therefore, regulation of properties at the p-n heterointerface should be important for designing chalcopyrite- photocathodes for further improvements of PEC parameters of water reduction. The concept would also be applicable for preparations of the other PEC devices aiming for water oxidation as well as CO2 reduction.

Solar-hydrogen power supply system and multichannel median signal selector for spacecraft miniaturization

Solar-hydrogen energy systems for spacecraft reliably provide energy for carrying out various kinds of unscheduled work on board and for eliminating emergency situations. Surplus energy is constantly accumulated on board in the form of the chemical energy of cryogenic hydrogen.The solar-hydrogen spacecraft power supply system is based on the principle of partial conversion of excess energy generated on board into gaseous and cryogenic hydrogen.The efficiency of converting sunlight into hydrogen is 14%. Solar-hydrogen energy systems are also called rechargeable hydrogen cells. They consist of solar panels that generate electricity, water tanks and a membrane that separates hydrogen and oxygen. The power supply system implements three modes in its operation. Mode A - the planned amount of electrical energy generated by solar cells is consumed to meet the needs of the spacecraft in the normal mode. Mode B - from the excess electricity in excess of the energy consumption on board, the solar panels generate electricity, with the help of which water is electrolyzed. The resulting hydrogen is stored in special tanks and can be used during the peak period of energy consumption. Mode C - part of the hydrogen can be liquefied by the onboard cryogenerator and it can be used to generate electricity in fuel cells in super-peak power consumption situations: accidents, repairs, experiments that require a lot of energy. The efficiency of converting sunlight into cryogenic hydrogen is 5%.The article considers a new version of the median signal selection element, which provides the possibility of practically unlimited scaling of the number of input signals without loss of performance, as well as the ability to monitor malfunctions or failures in the operation of the selection element itself.The experiments have shown that the implementation of a selection element for 7 inputs takes no more than 432 logical cells on the Altera Cyclone IV EP4CE115F29C7 FPGA, which is much less than the amount occupied by the analogs discussed in the article. In this case, the delay in calculating the median signal does not exceed one FPGA cycle.

Overview of the Factors Influencing the Efficiency of PV Solar Cells

PV technology works through the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity, a process based on the photoelectric effect. This phenomenon happens when specific materials absorb light particles, leading to the release of electrons. Capturing these electrons produces an electric current. Which can be harnessed as usable electricity. The development of more efficient PV system designs and enhancements in their operation and maintenance are key areas of current innovation. These advances are crucial for improving the overall performance and sustainability of solar energy systems, making them a more viable and dependable option for future energy needs. In the literature there are plenty of papers on solar energy, in order to advance the research on this subject we needs up to date information on the current situation. As such is lacking at present, A current literature review of this phenomenon is reffered for more detail.

A detailed optical thermo-electrical model for better thermal analysis of bifacial PV systems

Converting sunlight into electricity through photovoltaic (PV) technology is an effective solution to address the challenges of energy shortage and environmental protection. Bifacial (bPV) is a new type of solar cell that has advantages over monofacial (mPV) generation in that it can receive energy from both sides and produce more electrical energy, which has given rise to hope for PV. Thermal analysis, optical and electrical analyses are essential for bPV modeling. As temperature increases, the performance of a solar module decreases. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of a 550 W bPV panel in Tehran, Iran through optical, thermal, and electrical evaluations. In addition to the produced power and bifacial gain for the electrical measurement of the panel and comparing it with the mPV, thermal resistance has also been studied to investigate the importance of conductive, convective, and radiant heat transfer. It was discovered that the bPV produces 13.90 % more energy per year than the mPV. In terms of heat transfer, radiative thermal resistance contributes 63.08 % while conductive thermal resistance contributes only 0.57 %. This exhibits that the solar panel can be viewed as an integrated layer to simplify modeling.

Designing ferrocenyl thiophene chalcones as light harvester candidates for dye-sensitized solar cells

In dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), the dye (or photosensitizer) plays a crucial role. It absorbs light and generates electrons, which affects the efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity. While Ru(II)-based dyes are common in DSSCs, their scarcity, susceptibility to degradation, and limited absorption range pose challenges for wider adoption. Three new ferrocenyl-thiophene compounds have been synthesized, all sharing the same core structure, but the distinctive difference is the existence of methyl group (CH3) and bromine (Br) substituents attached to the thiophene ring. Using the structures obtained from spectroscopic and X-ray crystallography analyzes, the chemical reactivity of these compounds is theoretically evaluated. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) analysis and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were employed to investigate the redox properties and electron transport mechanisms of the material. The bromination process demonstrates its efficacy for dye applications, while the methyl attachment to the thiophene ring enhances anchoring toward TiO₂, contributing to improved performance in DSSCs. Overall, the compound featuring bromine exhibited a lower band gap compared to the others, resulting in higher efficiency in solar simulation analysis, nearly double that of the methyl-containing compound, and significantly surpassing the plain thiophene compound. EIS analysis revealed that, among the three ferrocenyl chalcone dyes, the bromine-containing compound exhibited the highest charge recombination resistance and longest electron lifetime.

Photo-thermal effects initiate multi-level energy conversion in “solid-solid” phase-changing fibers

The current textiles primarily employ passive heat barriers to minimize heat loss and achieve effective thermal insulation for human beings. Accordingly, intelligent fibers with energy storage and temperature control capabilities have garnered significant attention due to their potential to revolutionize textile technology. The study integrates the photo-thermal effect and phase change energy storage materials onto a fiber, thereby fabricating a fully intelligent energy storage fiber. This innovation enables the multi-level conversion of sunlight: “Optical energy - Thermal energy - Phase transition energy - Thermal energy”. The intelligent fiber efficiently converts solar energy into heat energy through the photo-thermal coupling of CuNPs, subsequently inducing a spatial conformational change in the solid-solid phase change material within the fiber for effective heat storage. The hybrid fiber possesses enhanced mechanical properties but also exhibits a significantly high phase transition enthalpy value of 49.75 J g−1 and a phase transition temperature suitable for human body temperature (20.19–30.21 °C), especially the fiber is more durable. The photo-thermal conversion test vividly demonstrates the systematic transformation of four distinct forms of energy within the composite fiber. This approach holds significant potential for advancing the field of smart fiber technology.

Controlling the thiourea for optimized growth of CdS nanorod arrays for improved photoelectrochemical water splitting

Energy and the environment are very important issues to secure, preserve and improve our modern lifestyle. The conversion of sunlight into hydrogen and oxygen via photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is one of the most potential routes for clean energy. Cadmium sulfide (CdS) is a promising semiconductor for utilization as a photoanode. In this work, CdS has been grown via the hydrothermal method by optimizing the thiourea concentration. The growth of CdS with equal concentration of Cd2+ and S2-demonstrates the crowded hexagonal-shaped nanorod arrays with small diameter and relatively longer length, and it exhibits the highest photocurrent density due to some factors, such as high length-to-diameter ratio, large reaction area, suitable flat band potential, slow charge recombination rate, fast charge transfer, suitable conduction and valence band edges, and surface reaction kinetics. This work will be of potential to further develop improved nanocomposites of CdS nanorods for hydrogen production and research in related fields.

Novel and stable carbon black/polyvinyl acetal aerogels efficiently harvesting solar energy for seawater desalination

A novel interfacial solar steam generators (ISSG) was prepared by a porous carbon black/polyvinyl acetal aerogel (CPA) with high light-absorbing hydrophilic properties, to achieve efficient solar-driven water evaporation and seawater desalination. The polyvinyl acetal was produced by the aldol condensation reaction of polyvinyl alcohol(PVA) and glutaraldehyde(GA). It was freeze-dried to create a hydrophilic porous structure that constructs an efficient hydrophilic channel. Carbon black (CB) exhibits high light absorption capabilities. Incident light undergoes multiple scattering within its porous network structure, effectively reducing reflected light energy loss and enabling efficient thermal conversion of sunlight. Benefited from its highly light-absorbing porous hydrophilic structure, CPA-40-3 evaporation rate achieves an impressive 3.23 kg·m−2·h−1 and an evaporation efficiency of 94 % under 1 sun irradiation, without obvious decay even during long-term use. Furthermore, CPA-40-3 demonstrates remarkable salt tolerance, the evaporation rate remains at 2.55 kg·m−2·h−1 although in simulated Dead Sea salt water under 1 sun irradiation. Compared to traditional ISSG, the CPA has advantages such as superior mechanical properties, prevention of surface salt precipitation, faster water supply, and a larger light absorption area. This design had tremendous promise for efficient solar desalination due to its extraordinarily high evaporation performance in high-salinity brine.

All‐in‐One Hybrid Solar‐Driven Interfacial Evaporators for Cogeneration of Clean Water and Electricity

AbstractSolar‐driven interfacial evaporators (SDIEs) have recently attracted considerable interest due to their ability to harvest abundant solar energy and treat seawater/wastewater for both freshwater production and electricity generation. However, during photothermal conversion in SDIEs, a portion of the incident sunlight is inevitably wasted, which presents an opportunity for potential alternative applications. There are also other types of harvestable energy like interactions between absorber materials’ surfaces and water/ions—called hydroelectricity (HE), as a form of renewable energy. This review paper provides an overview of studies focusing on utilizing SDIEs with a single structure capable of simultaneously producing freshwater and electricity, referred to as all‐in‐one hybrid SDIEs, with a particular emphasis on the HE power generation mechanism, which is the most commonly applied. An introduction to the photothermal conversion of sunlight into heat and fundamental aspects of the HE effect in hybrid SDIEs are discussed accordingly. The key results from studies on photothermal materials employed in all‐in‐one hybrid SDIEs are then explained and compared. This review will be concluded by spotlighting recent advancements, existing challenges, and promising opportunities that lie ahead for the materials used in these systems.

A synergetic cocatalyst for conversion of carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water into methanol

The conversion of CO2 into liquid fuels, using only sunlight and water, offers a promising path to carbon neutrality. An outstanding challenge is to achieve high efficiency and product selectivity. Here, we introduce a wireless photocatalytic architecture for conversion of CO2 and water into methanol and oxygen. The catalytic material consists of semiconducting nanowires decorated with core-shell nanoparticles, with a copper-rhodium core and a chromium oxide shell. The Rh/CrOOH interface provides a unidirectional channel for proton reduction, enabling hydrogen spillover at the core-shell interface. The vectorial transfer of protons, electrons, and hydrogen atoms allows for switching the mechanism of CO2 reduction from a proton-coupled electron transfer pathway in aqueous solution to hydrogenation of CO2 with a solar-to-methanol efficiency of 0.22%. The reported findings demonstrate a highly efficient, stable, and scalable wireless system for synthesis of methanol from CO2 that could provide a viable path toward carbon neutrality and environmental sustainability.

Evaluation of the Potential of PGPR on the Improvement of Flower Yield and Quality Under the Action of Photovoltaic Grow Lamp

However, there is controversy about the role and impact of PV growth on PGPR (Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria) in soil, so this paper uses regression analysis to study the effect of PV grow lights on PGPR and the improvement of flower yield and quality. The results showed that the PV grow lamp could simulate sunlight and stably output 455nm of light, which could improve the yield of flowers T1 (7.53%), quality T2 (15.40%) and potential T3 (30.28%), and the leaf length, plant height, plant protein and chlorophyll content were higher than those of normal growing plants. Therefore, solar photovoltaic grow lights can realize the conversion of sunlight, and expand the application range of photovoltaic power generation by converting them into analog wave frequencies through photovoltaic technology.

Efficient visible-light-driven photocatalytic hydrogen evolution in novel type-II SnS2/Al2S2 van der Waals heterostructures

With the exacerbation of environmental pollution and the energy crisis, the development and design of environmentally friendly and efficient photocatalytic catalysts for water splitting with visible light have become particularly imperative. This study delves into the detailed investigation of the novel type-II van der Waals heterostructure of SnS2/Al2S2 utilizing first-principles calculation methods. By leveraging the advantages of indirect type-II band alignment and high carrier mobility, the efficient separation of electron-hole pairs is achieved, thereby facilitating enhanced participation of electrons and holes in photocatalytic reactions. Furthermore, the heterostructure manifests a peak optical absorption coefficient value of approximately 5.34×104 cm−1 in the visible light spectrum, accompanied by the occurrence of red-shifting, which fosters efficient absorption of visible light. It is noteworthy that under conditions of pH = 0–3.7, the heterojunction surpasses the redox potential of water splitting, concurrently displaying a substantial hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and a high efficiency of converting sunlight to hydrogen (22.31 %). These results underscore the promising potential of the SnS2/Al2S2 heterostructure as a photocatalyst for water splitting, offering crucial theoretical support and practical guidance for the further advancement of hydrogen production via water splitting technology.

ADVANCED HYBRID SOLAR THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR THEORETICAL ANALYSES

Due to the fact that much of the world’s best solar resources are inversely correlated with population centers, significant motivation exists for developing the technology, which can deliver reliable and autonomous conversion of sunlight into electricity. Thermoelectric generators (TEG) are gaining incremental ground in this area due to its extensive use in solar thermal application as power generators, known as solar thermoelectric generators (STEG). STEG systems are gaining significant interest in both, concentrated and non-concentrated systems and have been employed in hybrid configurations with the solar thermal and photovoltaic systems. In this dissertation, mainly studies of Hybrid Solar Thermoelectric Generators (HSTEG) configuration are presented. HSTEG systems are much less studied both experimentally and theoretically, despite their clear technoeconomic advantages. There is a scope for significant improvement in the performance (efficiency) and a need for detailed performance analysis to understand the fundamentals of the energy transfer process. HSTEG systems (conventional) reported till date, initially the solar energy is utilized by the TEG for generating electricity and then transferred to other low temperature thermal cycles (heating or cooling). As an alternative one can design an advanced HSTEG system, in such way to first utilize the solar energy in the heat transfer fluid (HTF), which can run high temperature thermal cycle for heating or cooling or power generation) and then generate electricity by using TEG. Further, there is no advanced HSTEG system is available in the literature, which could deliver high temperature heat output from the hot side of the HSTEG system. Key Words: optics, photonics, light, lasers, stencils, journals

Anomaly detection in PV systems using constrained low-rank and sparse decomposition

PV (photovoltaic) systems, also known as solar panel systems, play an essential role in the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and the promotion of renewable energy. Through the conversion of sunlight into usable energy, electricity is generated without emitting greenhouse gases and producing pollutants. Notwithstanding the evolutionary significance of PV systems, the occurrence of defects and anomalies in PV systems may result in diminished power output, consequently impeding the efficiency of the systems and potentially resulting in hazards in certain circumstances. Therefore, early detection of faults and anomalies in PV systems is imperative to guarantee the reliability, efficiency, and safety of the systems. In this article, we develop a signal decomposition for the purpose of anomaly detection in PV systems. The proposed methodology is grounded on the concept of low-rank and sparse decomposition, with consideration given to the signs of the decomposed low-rank and sparse components, as well as the smooth variations within and between periods in the mean signals. Through the implementation of Monte Carlo simulations, we showcase the efficacy of our proposed methodology in identifying anomalies of varying durations and magnitudes in PV systems. A case study is employed to validate the proposed methodology in detecting anomalies in real PV systems.

First-principles study on MoSSe/ GaTe van der Waals heterostructures: A promising water-splitting photocatalyst

Photocatalytic water splitting using semiconductor electrocatalysts in photoelectrochemical cells is an appealing approach to converting sunlight and water into clean and renewable hydrogen fuel. MoSSe/GaTe der Waals heterojunctions has recently been suggested as a promising photocatalyst for water splitting. Depending on the stacking mode, the two type MoSSe/GaTe heterojunctions have moderate band gaps of 1.081 eV and 1.307 eV, significant visible absorption coefficients, and band-edge positions spanning the redox potential of water. Bader charge and differential charge density analyses show that the GaTe layer loses electrons and the MoSSe monolayer gains electrons, resulting in a built-in electric field pointing from the GaTe layer to the MoSSe layer. Moreover, the Gibbs free energy diagram indicates that solar energy can effectively drive water splitting on MoSSe/GaTe junction. The influence of the bi-axial strain and pH value of water are discussed. Therefore, the MoSSe/GaTe heterostructures are promising for applications in photocatalytic water decomposition.

Efficiency and performance ratio of photovoltaics on a 50 kWp Universitas Pamulang Viktor rooftop solar power plant

To overcome the fossil energy crisis due to the increasing need for electrical energy, new renewable energy sources are needed. Due to technological developments in the fields of transportation, industry, household, and commercial use. Indonesia’s geography has the potential to apply new renewable energy, more specifically photovoltaic (PV). However, it is greatly influenced by environmental factors such as solar radiation, voltage, which have an impact on the output power efficiency and performance. So, it is necessary to test both measurements and calculations to see the optimization of output power and PV efficiency. From previous research, it has not been carried out, especially in the experimental method Universitas Pamulang: measurement and empirical and for a sufficiently high capacity with the aim of optimal output power. Methods of measuring sunlight intensity, voltage and current, the calculation of converting sunlight intensity to solar constellation, power, efficiency, and performance ratio (PR). The average value being 721 W/m2 an efficiency value of 19.9% and a value PR is obtained of 0.967 or 96.7% is still realistic. So that the system is declared optimal.

Materials in Solar Photovoltaic Technology: Advances, Challenges, and Environmental Considerations

Solar photovoltaic technology has experienced significant growth and development in recent years, making it a significant figure in the field of renewable energy. The basic principle of solar PV technology involves the conversion of sunlight into electricity using semiconductor materials. Silicon has consistently been the predominant material used in solar PV cells, but there is ongoing research and development into alternative materials. The choice of material for solar PV cells is crucial as it directly impacts the efficiency, cost, and environmental impact of the technology. Silicon-based solar cells have achieved high levels of efficiency and reliability, but they can be expensive to produce. On the other hand, emerging materials such as perovskites show great promise in terms of cost-effectiveness and efficiency, but they still face challenges related to stability and scalability. In addition to the semiconductor material, other components such as conductive metals, transparent conductive oxides, and encapsulation materials also play a crucial role in the performance and longevity of solar PV systems. Understanding the material properties, fabrication processes, and environmental impact of solar PV materials is essential for making informed decisions in the design and implementation of solar PV systems.

Exciton Transfer Between Extended Electronic States in Conjugated Inter-Polyelectrolyte Complexes.

Artificial light harvesting, a process that involves converting sunlight into chemical potential energy, is considered to be a promising part of the overall solution to address urgent global energy challenges. Conjugated polyelectrolyte complexes (CPECs) are particularly attractive for this purpose due to their extended electronic states, tunable assembly thermodynamics, and sensitivity to their local environment. Importantly, ionically assembled complexes of conjugated polyelectrolytes can act as efficient donor-acceptor pairs for electronic energy transfer (EET). However, to be of use in material applications, we must understand how modifying the chemical structure of the CPE backbone alters the EET rate beyond spectral overlap considerations. In this report we investigate the dependence of the EET efficiency and rate on the electronic structure and excitonic wave function of the CPE backbone. To do so, we synthesized a series of alternating copolymers where the electronic states are systematically altered by introducing comonomers with electron withdrawing and electron-rich character while keeping the linear ionic charge density nearly fixed. We find evidence that the excitonic coupling may be significantly affected by the exciton delocalization radius, in accordance with analytical models based on the line-dipole approximation and quantum chemistry calculations. Our results imply that care should be taken when selecting CPE components for optimal CPEC EET. These results have implications for using CPECs as key components in water-based light-harvesting materials, either as standalone assemblies or as adsorbates on nanoparticles and thin films.

Exploring the Local Optoelectronic Properties of ALD Grown TiO2 Photoelectrode-Coatings with Atomic Force Microscopy Methods

Photoelectrochemical cells (PECs) hold great promise as an environmentally friendly method of converting sunlight into valuable fuels. However, the semiconductor components of PEC photoelectrodes are susceptible to corrosion under photoelectrochemical conditions.In order to protect the surface of these semiconductors from degradation, a thin overlayer of Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is often applied by atomic layer deposition (ALD). In addition to their protecting function, the physicochemical properties of these thin films significantly affect the overall performance of the device. The local nano-scale optoelectronic characteristics, which considerably influence their macroscopic properties, have rarely been reported in the literature.AFM methods constitute a powerful tool to investigate photo-induced charge separation, charge transport and recombination on photoelectrode surfaces with nanometer resolution.In this context, we have employed Tunneling Conductive AFM (TUNA) and Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM) in the dark and under illumination to investigate the surface of ALD-grown TiO2. The synthesis conditions determine the morphology, which has a strong impact on the local optoelectronic properties. TUNA measurements reveal higher photogenerated currents on the grain and facet boundaries, showing that these regions can be favorable conduction pathways. Based on KPFM experiments we can quantify the more efficient photo-induced charge separation on the crystalline TiO2 inclusions, which generate a significant surface photopotential (~450 mV) upon UV-illumination. Categorization of different regions of surface topography based on morphology allows us to analyze the evolution of surface potential over time and extract localized time constants for carrier dynamic processes on the films. This spatially resolved information provides valuable insight to guide the development of macroscopically stable and efficient photoelectrodes through the engineering of microstructure at the nano scale.