Conventional Oil Production Research Articles

LNG production revenue enhancement

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) production involves complex processes that differ from conventional oil and gas production. That complexity, however, can be harnessed to drive improved business performance. Parameters for optimisation include plant reliability, capacity and yield. In combination, these parameters may deliver a non-linear upside to production operations at minimal cost. This paper shall therefore review a method for assessing the existing and potential performance of a hypothetical LNG facility with a focus on maximisation of gross revenue. Drawing on various case studies, several key process steps shall be reviewed in detail using both fundamental engineering and managerial economics. Optimisation of a single LNG train shall be reviewed to show the cumulative impact of executing a combination of individually small process improvements. The improvements reviewed span the spectrum from setpoint and alarm changes to in-depth technical studies and physical modifications. The process for planning, studying and testing enhanced performance is also discussed. The outcomes from a combination of these initiatives are summarised, including a forecast of the potential for further continuous improvement as well as real world examples.

Cost competitiveness of palm oil biodiesel production in Indonesia

This study investigates opportunities to improve the cost competitiveness of the palm oil biodiesel industry in Indonesia. It compares costs and revenues of standalone conventional palm oil and biodiesel production with an integrated system that includes utilisation of biomass residues. Economic metrics, viz. net income, NPV, IRR, payback period and biodiesel breakeven price are evaluated. Sensitivity analyses are carried out to verify how parameter changes affect net income. The results show that the integrated concept with upgraded CPO and biodiesel processing plant (Biorefinery), which simultaneously produces biodiesel, electricity, heat and biofertiliser, can obtain an additional income of 14 USD/t-FFB compared to the Conventional System. The biorefinery system helps to reduce dependency on government subsidy for biodiesel production, and lowers the industry vulnerability to fluctuation of fossil diesel prices. The shift to modern facilities with value chain integration provides a pathway to enhance the share of renewable energy in Indonesia through increased biodiesel production and electricity generation from palm biomass residues. It may also promote resource efficiency and climate change mitigation through reduced emissions from untreated residues and fossil energy carriers. The analysis enhances understanding about potential gains and consequences of more stringent policy implementation in the country.

Fundamental studies on extraction of vanadyl oxide tetraphenyl porphyrin (VO TPP) presence in heavy oil model using toluene assisted ionic liquids

The demand on petroleum resources are increasing in recent years but the production of conventional oil is depleted. Hence, the unconventional oil seem to be an alternative. Unfortunately, the value of heavy oils are lower than conventional oils because of the content of contaminants such as heavy metals. These heavy metals cause problems during the upgrading process. It tends to accumulate during distillation, poisoning the catalyst and will cause injurious to the wall of furnace. The aim for this work is to remove Vanadyl Oxide Tetraphenyl Porphyrin (VO TPP) from heavy oil model using toluene-assisted ionic liquids (ILs). Temperatures used are 30°C, 60°C, and 90°C at mixing time of 30 minutes, 60 minutes, and 90 minutes. Result shows 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium octyl sulfate (EMIM OS) have higher efficiency of VO TPP removal compared to 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium octyl sulfate (BMIM OS). Although EMIM OS removed VO TPP higher than BMIM OS but the removal was decreased at 90°C. The optimum extraction achieved when using EMIM OS is about 45 % removal at 30°C and 30 minutes. Thus, EMIM OS is suggested to be used as it capable to remove VO TPP at minimal temperature and lowest mixing time which low operating cost.

Optimized Cyclic Water Injection Strategy for Oil Recovery in Low-Permeability Reservoirs

With the worldwide decline in conventional oil production, tremendous unconventional resources, such as low-permeability reservoirs, are becoming increasingly important. Cyclic water injection (CWI) as an oil recovery method has attracted increasing attention in the present environment of low oil prices. However, the optimal CWI strategy is difficult to determine for a mature oilfield due to the involvement of multiple wells with multiple operational parameters. Thus, our main focus in this paper is to present a novel and systematic approach to optimize CWI strategies by studying a typical low-permeability, namely, reservoir G21. To this end, a comprehensive method that combines the advantages of streamline simulation and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation (FCE) was proposed to identify water channeling in the reservoir. Second, the reliability of the method was verified using tracer tests. Finally, a new hybrid optimization algorithm, the simulated annealing-genetic algorithm (SAGA), coupled with a reservoir simulator was developed to determine an optimal CWI strategy for the low-permeability reservoir. The results show that the CWI technique is viable as a primary means in the present environment of low oil prices to improve the waterflood performance in low-permeability reservoirs. The oil recovery of the most efficient strategy increases by 6.8% compared to conventional waterflooding. The asymmetric CWI scheme is more efficient than the symmetric CWI scheme for the low-permeability reservoir.

Capital Budgeting Model and Sensitivity Analysis of the Conventional Oil Production Sharing Contract (PSC) Fiscal Systems: Empirical Evidence from Indonesia

Oil is a vital commodity that controls the livelihood of people. It is also the main resource of state revenue. The oil industry in Indonesia has started since 1883. However, only 40 percent of the total sedimentary basin in Indonesia has been explored since that time (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Republic of Indonesia, 2015). Accordingly, the major fields are getting drain, while the domestic consumption of oil is increasing. Low investment is one of the factors that cause the declines of oil production. Working Areas (WA) which had been offered to the potential investors by the Government of Indonesia (GOI) during the period ended September 10, 2015, were unsold, followed by unsuccessful of seven WAs offered in the period from July 18 to October 28, 2016, due to an unattractive terms and conditions of PSC Fiscal Systems in the decreasing of oil price situation currently. Oil business requires high capital, high technology, high risks, long terms commitment, but high returns. Therefore, GOI always depends on the private investor to run exploration and exploitation of oil mining. The purpose of this study is to measure the feasibility of oil industry investment and to examine the attractive terms and conditions of PSC Fiscal Systems. The data were collected from the ten PSC Fiscal Systems which had been started the business since 1968 - 2014. Capital Budgeting Model indicators: Payback Period, Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) were used to analyze the data and sensitivity analysis. The finding shows that the attractive terms and conditions of PSC Fiscal Systems are a maximum split of 50 percent for GOI, under controllable Cost Recovery (CR), the oil price of USD 50.00/barrel, and WACC <20%. The authors believe that the findings will be beneficial for GOI and potential oil investors to carry out a fair negotiation, to come up with a win-win solution.

Unconventional and Conventional Oil Production Impacts on Oil Price - Lessons Learnt with Glance to the Future

Energy is not a traditional commodity where low prices is always good news! It might be good for some, but definitely, not the case for many. Energy resources including, fossil fuels and renewables, have a significant impact on our day to day activities and they have been prime contributors to our lives retention, advancements and upheaval of the world economy at large. As a result, oil has not only played the role of the master commodity on a financial and economical level, but has also extended its supreme impact to the social, sociopolitical and geopolitical aspects of the modern world. However, it is peculiar to note that even with this significance, the oil industry has been experiencing various economic shocks over the past decades. Such shocks have directly been reflected in oil price fluctuations within a dynamic and short timeframe. With the OPEC and non-OPEC production fluctuations against consistent economic growth, worldwide geopolitical conflicts and the ongoing competition between conventional and unconventional oil reserves, the swings in oil prices have become a phenomenon which is worth understanding and analyzing in order to prospect its future trends on the long run. The key question to examine is whether the recently experienced battle between production rate and oil prices will continue affecting the global market over the coming years. This study explores various factors formulating the volatile behavior of oil prices and links the contemporary situations to the historical oil price spikes and trends related to specific events that we know and several others hidden beneath. One of the main key drives for the current oil crisis is presumed to be the active production of unconventional oil which poses a significant threat to conventional oil producers and has extended its impact to both political and economic levels. Furthermore, the future of conventional oil reserves is analyzed in depth based on generated empirical models prospecting the future profiles of various extractable ultimate recoverable (EUR) scenarios while considering external factors such as socio-political and economic growth. The decline rate of conventional oil reserves productivity is expected to be prominent over the next decades as depicted by this study. This further supports our conclusion that the current positive supply oil price shock and the active emergence of unconventional oil will lead to a disruption in the future reliance and usage of conventional oil.

(Invited) Membrane Science and Technology for Water-Energy-Food Nexus Applications

Around the world, drought inflicts an increasingly unpredictable, frequent and devastating toll on human activities, ranging from, for example, struggling to secure access to sufficient clean water to simply survive, leading to political unrest and instability, increasing the cost of agriculture and manufacturing operations, and damaging the environment, both directly and indirectly. Climate change exacerbates stress on both water supply and demand. Water and energy are inexorably linked, with enormous volumes of water required to generate energy in many cases and large energy inputs required to purify water. In the U.S., thermoelectric power plants account for 41% of total water withdrawals, with nearly all the water requiring some form of purification before use. Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing unleashed a sea of valuable hydrocarbons in the U.S., revitalizing the chemical industry, weakening dependence on foreign energy sources, and reducing oil and gas prices worldwide. However, oil and gas production comes at a substantial price in terms of the amount of water required and the amount of flowback or produced water generated. In many cases, for every barrel of oil produced, 5 or more barrels of water are also produced. This water is contaminated and requires substantial cleanup (i.e., energy input) for any form of beneficial use. An additional indicator of the importance of water is its significance for economic activity. It’s estimated that every million USD of economic activity requires 22,000 m3 of water per year; the faster our economies run, the more clean water we need. However, the world is not at a loss for water. We have more water than we could ever use. But, 96.5% of it is in the oceans, too contaminated with salt for many anthropogenic uses. Of the 2.5% that is freshwater, nearly 70% of it is locked in glaciers and icecaps, leaving precious little water that is both fresh and available, often not in locations where it is most needed. Membrane science is alleviating water shortages, weakening the linkage between energy and water, and arresting the environmental damage occurring due to agricultural runoff (e.g., uncontrolled algal blooms), conventional and unconventional oil and gas production, and energy generation based on fossil fuels. A “moonshot for water” has been proposed in the U.S. to reduce the cost of desalination to be comparable to that of conventional drinking water costs. Disruptive, membrane-based technologies will lead the way in bringing about this revolution. Membrane-based seawater desalination is already the least energy intensive way to desalinate seawater, and membranes are increasingly used for wastewater treatment and reuse. Basic and applied science discoveries are paving the way for next generation membranes that will be highly selective, fouling resistant, low energy and highly resilient. Rational control of pore size and pore size distribution in membrane filters is critical to such developments. Discovering and developing the underpinning science to predict ion and water transport across membranes designed to separate ions from water is already providing profound insight regarding molecular strategies to tailor next generation membranes. This presentation will frame the water/energy nexus challenges and opportunities and provide a glimpse of potential paths forward to supply the world with low energy, abundant access to clean water.

Wettability alteration of sandstones by silica nanoparticle dispersions in light and heavy crude oil

Unlike conventional oil production methods, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes can recover most oil products from the reservoir. One method, known as wettability alteration, changes the hydrophilicity of the reservoir rock via decreased surface interactions with crude oils. The mitigation of these attractive forces enhances petroleum extraction and increases the accessibility of previously inaccessible rock deposits. In this work, silica nanoparticles (NPs) have been used to alter the wettability of two sandstone surfaces, Berea and Boise. Changes in wettability were assessed by measuring the contact angle and interfacial tension of different systems. The silica NPs were suspended in brine and a combined solution of brine and the Tween®20 nonionic surfactant at concentrations of 0, 0.001, and 0.01 wt% NP with both light and heavy crude oil. The stability of the different nanofluids was characterized by the size, zeta potential, and sedimentation of the particles in suspension. Unlike the NPs, the surfactant had a greater effect on the interfacial tension by influencing the liquid-liquid interactions. The introduction of the surfactant decreased the interfacial tension by 57 and 43% for light and heavy crude oil samples, respectively. Imaging and measurements of the contact angle were used to assess the surface-liquid interactions and to characterize the wettability of the different systems. The images reflect that the contact angle increased with the addition of NPs for both sandstone and oil types. The contact angle in the light crude oil sample was most affected by the addition of 0.001 wt% NP, which altered both sandstones’ wettability. Increases in contact angle approached 101.6% between 0 and 0.001 wt% NPs with light oil on the Berea sandstone. The contact angle however remained relatively unaffected by addition of higher NP concentrations, thus indicating that low NP concentrations can effectively be used for enhancing crude oil recovery. While the contact angle of the light crude oil plateaued, the heavy crude oil continued to increase with an increase in NP concentration; therefore indicating that a maximum contact angle in heavy crude oil was not yet achieved. The introduction of NPs in light and heavy crude oil samples altered both the Berea and Boise sandstone systems’ wettability, which in turn indicated the efficacy of the silica NPs and surfactants in generating a more water-wet reservoir. Consequently, silica NPs and surfactants are most promising for EOR across the range of oil types.

Northern Territory Unconventional Resources: A Regulatory Perspective

This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper SPE 182404, “Unconventional-Resources Exploration and Development in the Northern Territory—Challenges From a Regulator’s Perspective,” by M. Rezazadeh, J. van Hattum, and D. Marozzi, Northern Territory Department of Mines and Energy, prepared for the 2016 SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Perth, Australia, 25–27 October. The paper has not been peer reviewed. The production of conventional onshore oil and gas in Australia’s Northern Territory began in 1983 from the Palm Valley Field (gas) in the Amadeus Basin. Until 2010, the industry relied on conventional oil and gas development technology, but, in recent years, the focus of the industry has shifted to unconventional-resource exploration. This paper outlines the key issues that must be addressed from a regulatory perspective in regard to the development of an onshore unconventional-gas industry in the Northern Territory. Introduction In the Northern Territory, the Department of Mines and Energy (DME) is the agency responsible for regulating the exploration and production of oil and gas and the administration of petroleum tenures and petroleum pipelines onshore and in designated coastal waters up to 3 nautical miles seaward from the Territorial Sea Baseline of the Northern Territory. The DME’s role is to ensure that best-practice regulatory principles are applied for the sustainable and safe exploration and production of natural resources in the Northern Territory. In the Northern Territory, hydraulic fracturing has taken place since 1967, mainly as a process to enhance hydrocarbon production from conventional reservoirs with vertical wells. Since 2011, however, hydraulic fracturing has been carried out during exploration for unconventional hydrocarbons. Until now, developmental drilling has taken place only in producing fields in the Amadeus Basin. In the McArthur, Bonaparte, South Georgina, and Pedirka Basins, exploration activities are ongoing. Onshore Northern Territory oil production comes from the Mereenie and Surprise Fields. Until November 2015, onshore gas production in the Northern Territory came from the Mereenie and Palm Valley Fields. In December 2015, the Dingo Field began producing gas. In 2015, 3,703 MMscf of gas was produced from the three fields. Current Northern Territory Onshore Petroleum Regulatory Framework The Northern Territory Petroleum Act is the principal existing legislation regulating oil and gas exploration and production. The DME currently uses the Schedule of Onshore Petroleum Exploration and Production Requirements (referred to here as the Schedule) to regulate petroleum activities; this guideline is similar to that which Western Australia previously used. In 2015, Western Australia replaced the Schedule with its Petroleum Resource Management and Administration Regulations. The Schedule is used to provide requirements to regulate and audit all petroleum activities.

Enrichment and distribution of shale oil in the Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation, Songliao Basin, Northeast China

The Songliao Basin is a large-scale petroliferous basin in China. With a gradual decline in conventional oil production, the exploration and development of replacement resources in the basin is becoming increasingly important. Previous studies have shown that the Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation (K2qn) has favorable geological conditions for the formation of shale oil. Thus, shale oil in the Qingshankou Formation represents a promising and practical replacement resource for conventional oil. In this study, geological field surveys, core observation, sample tests, and the analysis of well logs were applied to study the geochemical and reservoir characteristics of shales, identify shale oil beds, build shale oil enrichment models, and classify favorable exploration areas of shale oil from the Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation. The organic matter content is high in shales from the first member of the Cretaceous Qingshankou Formation (K2qn1), with average total organic carbon (TOC) content exceeding 2%. The organic matter is mainly derived from lower aquatic organisms in a reducing brackish to fresh water environment, resulting in mostly type I kerogen. The vitrinite reflectance (Ro) and the temperature at which the maximum is release of hydrocarbons from cracking of kerogen occurred during pyrolysis (Tmax) respectively range from 0.5% to 1.1% and from 430 °C to 450 °C, indicating that the K2qn1 shales are in the low-mature to mature stage (Ro ranges from 0.5% to 1.2%) and currently generating a large amount of oil. The favorable depth for oil generation and expulsion is 1800–2200 m and 1900–2500 m, respectively as determined by basin modeling. The reserving space of the K2qn1 shale oil includes micropores and mircofractures. The micropore reservoirs are developed in shales interbedded with siltstones exhibiting high gamma ray (GR), high resistivity (Rt), low density (DEN), and slightly abnormal spontaneous potential (SP) in the well-logging curves. The microfracture reservoirs are mainly thick shales with high Rt, high AC (acoustic transit time), high GR, low DEN, and abnormal SP. Based on the shale distribution, geochemical characteristics, reservoir types, fracture development, and the process of shale oil generation and enrichment, the southern Taikang and northern Da'an are classified as two favorable shale oil exploration areas in the Songliao Basin.

Utilization of Landsat data to quantify land-use and land-cover changes related to oil and gas activities in West-Central Alberta from 2005 to 2013

Land use and land cover (LULC) change detection associated with oil and gas activities plays an important role in effective sustainable management practices, compliance monitoring, and reclamation assessment. In this study, a mapping methodology is presented for quantifying pre- and post-disturbance LULC types with annual Landsat Best-Available-Pixel multispectral data from 2005 to 2013. Annual LULC and land disturbance maps were produced for one of the major conventional oil and gas production areas in West-Central Alberta with an accuracy of 78% and 87%, respectively. The highest rate of vegetation loss (178 km2/year) was observed in coniferous forest compared to broadleaf forest, mixed forest, and native vegetation. Integration of ancillary oil and gas geospatial data with annual land disturbances indicated that less than 20% of the total land disturbances were attributable to oil and gas activities. In 2013, approximately 44% of oil and gas disturbances from 2005 to 2013 showed evidence of vegetation recovery. In the future, geospatial data related to wildfire, logging activities, insect defoliation, and other natural and anthropogenic factors can be integrated to quantify other causes of land disturbances.

Steam injection gravity drainage as a follow-up process for cyclic steam stimulation

Cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) is an effective method to recover extra heavy oil but it achieves a relatively low recovery factor (~26% before economic limit is reached) and is less energy efficient with higher emissions intensity than that of conventional oil production. After it reaches its economic limit, it remains unclear what is the follow-up recovery process where the energy and emission intensities can be minimized. Here, a detailed examination of the Liaohe extra heavy oil CSS and continuous Steam Injection Gravity Drainage (SIGD) operations is conducted to examine their energy and emission intensities. Further analysis is conducted by using detailed geological and reservoir models and a history match of the CSS and SIGD operations. The results reveal that CSS is an effective thermal recovery method to initiate production from extra heavy oil reservoirs and that SIGD using infill wells is an effective post-CSS recovery process to produce a significant fraction of the remaining oil from the reservoir. For the reservoir studied, the steam-to-oil ratio (energy efficiency) and emissions intensity of SIGD is slightly worse than that of the initial CSS operation.

Quantitative interpretations and assessments of a fractured gas hydrate reservoir using three-dimensional seismic and LWD data in Kutei basin, East Kalimantan, offshore Indonesia

Concentrated fractured gas hydrate reservoirs in fine-grained sediments have been considered to have limited potential for commercially-viable production of natural gas. They may also pose significant geohazard where they overly conventional oil and gas production targets. The genesis of such accumulations is not well known and the characterization of the reservoirs is difficult. Thus, integrate characterization using 3D seismic interpretation, well logs, and geotechnical analyses are vital. The present study is the first detailed description of a fractured gas hydrate reservoir in the Kutei basin, offshore Indonesia.In this study, vertical fluid flow features (such as mud volcanoes and chimney structures) and other indicators of gas hydrate occurrence (including Bottom Simulating Reflectors (BSRs) and high-resistivity zones) are interpreted over a region of 500 km2. Seismic amplitude anomalies provide evidence of gas migration that has reached the seafloor. An interpreted double BSR below a mud volcano is inferred to indicate thermogenic gas present in the shallow sections. Geological and geotechnical analyses show overpressure associated with gas migration across the base of gas hydrate stability zone (BGHSZ) results in the formation of hydraulic and pneumatic fracturing. Seismic and well logs data indicate that the vertical migration of ascending free gas results in large-size macro-fractures whereas free gas accumulation below less permeable hydrated sediments allows for the generation of local small micro-fractures. Consequently, the fractures play roles as conduits and reservoirs for gas hydrate accumulations.Hydrate saturation was estimated from seismic and well log data by using seismic inversion and Archie equation, respectively. Gas hydrate is inferred to uniformly occur above the base of hydrate stability zone and its average thickness is estimated to be approximately 30 m. The gas hydrate is estimated to occupy generally 5–10% by volume in micro-fracture reservoirs, with as high as 30–35% near the top of macro-fracture reservoirs.

Environmental and economic assessment of vegetable oil production using membrane separation and vapor recompression

Solvent extraction of crude oil from oilseeds is widely applied for its high production capacity and low cost. In this process, solvent recovery and tail gas treatment are usually performed by adsorption, paraffin scrubbing, or even cryogenics (at low tail gas flow rates). Membrane separation, which has a lower energy consumption than these techniques, spans a broad range of admissible concentrations and flow rates, and is moreover easily combined with other techniques. Vapor recompression has potentials to reduce the heat loss in association with distillation and evaporation. In this study, we proved the possibility of combining membrane separation and vapor recompression to improve the conventional vegetable oil production, by both experiments and process simulation. Nearly 73% of energy can be saved in the process of vegetable oil extraction by the novel processing approach. By further environmental assessment, several impact categories show that the optimized process is environmentally sustainable.

Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Rice Bran Oil -the Technology, Manufacture, and Applications.

Rice bran is a good source of nutrients that have large amounts of phytochemicals and antioxidants. Conventional rice bran oil production requires many processes that may deteriorate and degrade these valuable substances. Supercritical CO2 extraction is a green alternative method for producing rice bran oil. This work reviews production of rice bran oil by supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction. In addition, the usefulness and advantages of SC-CO2 extracted rice bran oil for edible oil and health purpose is also described.

The Net Cash Flow Measurement of The Conventional Oil Production Sharing Contract (PSC) Fiscal Systems

Indonesia is the pioneer of the Production Sharing Contract (PSC),the irst contract was signed in 1960. It is the standard of comparison for all PSCs (Johnston, 1994). According to the Executive Agency for Upstream Oil and Gas Business Activities in Indonesia (SKK Migas,2014), PSC is a Petroleum Exploration and Production Agreement between the Authority Body and the Oil Contractor (OC). This study focuses on the oil industry, covering a PSC oil ield which has been operating in Indonesia since 1998. The primary data of 2016 is used.The purpose of this study is to measure the yearly net cash lows received by the Government of Indonesia (GOI) and the OC during exploitation period, and to examine the attractiveness of the terms and conditions ofthe PSC. The basic features ofPSCs are: irst tranche petroleum (FTP), cost recovery (CR), proit oil (PO), domestic market obligation (DMO), and taxes. The inancial issue of PSC is how costs are recovered and proits divided. The inding shows that from 100%Gross Revenue (GR) ofthe oil ield in 2016; 35.43% ofit is allocated to the GOI, and only 2.28% to the OC. Meanwhile, the CR for the year is 62.29% of the GR. Therefore, it is needed to manage the CR eficiently and effectively of both parties. It is recommended to limit the CR. Moreover, with the oil price that tends to decrease. The study will be beneicial for GOI and potential OCs to carry out a fair negotiation. This study will also facilitate the students and academicians to assess the correlation of variables of the PSC Fiscal Systems to be used in the decision-making process.

Regional Oil Extraction and Consumption: A Simple Production Model for the Next 35 years Part I

The growing conflicts in and about oil-exporting regions and speculations about volatile oil prices during the last decade have renewed the public interest in predictions for the near future oil production and consumption. Unfortunately, studies from only 10 years ago, which tried to forecast the oil production during the next 20–30 years, failed to make accurate predictions for today’s global oil production and consumption. Forecasts using economic growth scenarios overestimated the actual oil-equivalent liquid production, while models which tried to estimate the maximum future conventional and unconventional oil production/year, using official and public country reserve data and/or private oil industry oil reserve databases, often underestimated the current conventional oil production in some larger oil-producing countries. In this paper, a new approach to model the maximal future regional and thus global oil production (part I) and the consequences for the regional oil consumption (part II) during the next decades is proposed. Our analysis of the regional oil production data during past decades shows that, in contrast to periods when production was growing and growth rates varied greatly from one country to another, remarkable similarities are found during the plateau and decline periods of different countries. As a result, we propose to model the oil production decline phase in all oil-producing regions with a universal decline function which assumes that a few years with a stable production will be followed by about 5 years with a 3 %/year decline and 6 %/year afterwards. This plateau and decline function was found to describe accurately the oil production of the past 15 years from Western Europe (EU+Norway), Mexico and Indonesia. Following this model, the particular production phase of each major oil-producing country and region is determined essentially only from the recent past oil production data. Accordingly, we find that the conventional oil production in all regions, outside of the Middle East OPEC countries, will start the 3 %/year decline phase between the years 2015 and 2020. Using these data, the model is then used to predict the production from all major oil-producing countries, regions and continents up to the year 2050. The limited regional and global potential to compensate this decline with unconventional oil and oil-equivalents is also presented.

A database and workflow integration methodology for rapid evaluation and selection of Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) technologies for heavy oil fields

Conventional crude oil is the currently dominant but a non-renewable energy resource. Despite the development and improvement of alternative energy technologies, there is still a large gap between the capability of renewable energy systems to capture and reliably supply power, and the ever-increasing global energy demand requirements. Therefore, until technological innovations facilitate sufficient energy generation through alternative fuels, other means of sustaining crude oil production, such as Improved Oil Recovery (IOR) methods, must be systematically explored. Beyond increasing production of conventional oil, IOR methods can effectively facilitate the extraction of oil from unconventional reservoirs, such as heavy oil fields. This capability is of high strategic importance due to the considerably large size of global heavy oil reserves.There are several IOR technologies available, but each of them is suitable only for certain oil field types. The aim of this paper is to illustrate an alternative, low-cost, quick screening method which is competitive to more technically laborious and costly methods for selecting the most suitable technology for a given heavy oil extraction project, using a limited dataset. A two-stage technology screening method is hereby proposed: the first stage is based on previous project literature data evaluation, and the second stage is based on simple empirical oil production correlation methods (such as the Marx & Langenheim model) coupled with Ingen's RAVE (Risk and Value Engineering) and Schlumberger's PIPESIM software applications. The new method can achieve reasonably accurate results and minimise cost and time requirements during the preliminary stages of an oilfield development project, as evidenced via a comprehensive case study.

Recent Trends in Water Use and Production for California Oil Production.

Recent droughts and concerns about water use for petroleum extraction renew the need to inventory water use for oil production. We quantified water volumes used and produced by conventional oil production and hydraulic fracturing (HF) in California. Despite a 25% decrease in conventional oil production from 1999 to 2012, total water use increased by 30% though much of that increase was derived from reuse of produced water. Produced water volumes increased by 50%, with increasing amounts disposed in unlined evaporation ponds or released to surface water. Overall freshwater use (constituting 1.2% of the state's nonagricultural water consumption) increased by 46% during this period due to increased freshwater-intensive tertiary oil production. HF has been practiced in California for more than 30 years, accounting for 1% of total oil production in 2012 from mostly directional and vertical wells. Water use intensity for HF wells in California averaged at 3.5 vol water/vol oil production in 2012 and 2.4 vol/vol in 2013, higher than the range from literature estimates and net water use intensity of conventional production (1.2 vol/vol in 2012). Increasing water use and disposal for oil production have important implications for water management and have potentially adverse health, environmental, and ecological impacts.

The composition of groundwater in Palaeogene and older formations in the Netherlands. A synthesis

AbstractThere is increasing interest in the exploitation of the deep subsurface of the Netherlands for purposes other than conventional oil and gas production, such as geothermal energy, shale gas exploitation and the disposal of radioactive waste, so for technical and environmental reasons it is important to understand the composition of the deep groundwater. A synthesis has been made of almost 200 existing groundwater analyses for the Oligocene and older formations in the Netherlands. Three groundwater categories are considered: (1) deep oil and gas reservoirs, (2) deep, buried and confined aquifers and (3) shallower, semi-confined aquifers with or without outcrop areas nearby. No distinct water types are found but a continuous series, with Cl ranging from around 10,000 to 200,000 mg l−1: the highest concentrations are found in the reservoirs and the lowest in the semi-confined aquifers. The most saline brines are found in the northern onshore area and adjacent offshore area, where Permian and Triassic rock salt also occurs regionally in the subsurface. The groundwater is usually pH-neutral, saturated in carbonates and anaerobic. Anhydrite saturation occurs when the Cl concentration exceeds 100,000 mg l−1, and halite saturation occurs at Cl concentrations close to 200,000 mg l−1. Few tracer analyses have been done for δ2H–H2O, δ18O–H2O, δ37Cl, Br, Li and B, which makes a rigorous palaeohydrological interpretation impossible. Lithium and B may be controlled by water–rock interaction which makes them less suitable as tracers. Some of the analyses suggest that dissolution of rock salt plays a role in determining the salinity of groundwater for some deep wells in the southern part of the Netherlands, whereas other analyses suggest that evaporated seawater influences the salinity in the associated wells. Cation-exchange patterns and alkalinity to Ca ratios indicate that groundwater in the deep, buried and shallow, semi-confined aquifers is usually freshening. Six14C analyses of samples from the buried aquifers indicate an apparent age of at least 20,000 years. Six δ37Cl analyses of formation waters from reservoirs in South-Holland suggest diffusion of Cl from a brine towards fresher water, and the associated K and also Li concentrations further suggest that these brines are related to rock salt dissolution and are not the residue of evaporated seawater. The high Ca concentrations are enigmatic for the hypersaline formation waters in the reservoirs. A limited series of samples had been analysed for various trace elements. The median concentrations are similar to the seawater and Dutch background concentration limits for shallow groundwater, but maximum concentrations can be up to three orders of magnitude higher. In conclusion, the data synthesis shows that the composition of groundwater in reservoirs and aquifers of Palaeogene and older age varies strongly in salinity at the national scale. Presence of evaporite deposits and diffusive transport seem to play important roles in controlling the salinity. Many existing analyses have no or only a few tracer analyses, that even vary among the samples. A complete suite of analyses is needed to elucidate the hydrogeological and geochemical processes that control the groundwater composition.