Conventional Milk Production Research Articles

INFLUENCE OF CALVING SEASON OF COWS ON THEIR PRODUCTIVITY UNDER ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL MILK PRODUCTION

The aim of the research was to study the impact of the first calving season of Simmental cows on their future milk productivity and reproductive capacity in conditions of both organic and conventional milk production.
 Research materials and methods. The research was conducted in Simmental breed herds of PE "Galex-Agro" (organic milk production, n = 272) and STOV "Myroslavel-Agro" (conventional milk production, n = 120) in the Zviahel district of Zhytomyr region, Ukraine. First-calving cows in the two farms were categorized into four groups based on the calving season: Group I – Winter (n = 83 and 42 cows in PE "Galex-Agro" and STOV "Myroslavel-Agro" respectively); Group II – Spring (59 and 26);Group III (45 and 12); Group IV (85 and 40 cows).
 Research results. First-calving cows in organic production demonstrated a higher expression of quantitative traits of milk productivity, regardless of the calving season, compared to their counterparts in conventional conditions, albeit with slightly lower qualitative traits. However, statistically significant differences were found only in 305-day milk yield between autumn-calving cows in favor of first-calving cows from PE "Galex-Agro."
 It is worth noting that, in both farms, the first calving in the autumn season was found to be the most favorable, while the summer season was the least favorable, which provides grounds for planning calving in the autumn period. Our research results indicate that animals under organic management, regardless of the calving season, exhibited statistically significantly (P < 0.01–0.001) older age at first calving and longer calving intervals. No statistically significant intergroup differences were found in other reproductive traits.
 The season of first calving in both organic and conventional milk production conditions accounted for 0.3 to 4.7% and 0.2 to 3.3% of the total phenotypic variability in milk productivity traits, as well as 1.0 to 2.9% and 0.6 to 2.5% of the reproductive capacity. Statistically significant effects of the calving season were only observed in PE "Galex-Agro" and exclusively on productivity traits, including lactation duration (3.2%), 305-day milk yield (4.3%), milk fat content (4.7%), milk protein content (4.3%), milk fat, and protein content (4.7%), as well as the duration of dry period (2.9%) (P < 0.05–0.001).
 Conclusion. Our research results highlight the importance for specialists in both farms to pay attention to the seasonality of first calving in cows and, if possible, take these aspects into account when planning breeding and technological measures in the farms.

INFLUENCE OF PATERNAL ORIGIN ON THE MANIFESTATION OF ECONOMIC USEFUL TRAITS IN THEIR DAUGHTERS IN ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL MILK PRODUCTION

INFLUENCE OF PATERNAL ORIGIN ON THE MANIFESTATION OF ECONOMIC USEFUL TRAITS IN THEIR DAUGHTERS IN ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL MILK PRODUCTION

REPRODUCTIVE ABILITY OF FIRST-CALF COWS OF SIMMENTAL BREED IN ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL MILK PRODUCTION

The aim of the work was to study the influence of biological periods of reproduction of first-born cows of Simmental breed on their productive features of organic and conventional milk production.
 Research materials and methods. The research was carried out in the herds of Simmental breed PС "Halex-Agro" (organic milk production, n = 272) and LLC "Myroslavel-Agro" (conventional milk production, n = 120) Novograd-Volyn district of Zhytomyr region according to conventional methods.
 Research results. The article presents the results of research on the influence of the age of the first fertile insemination, age of first calving, the duration of service and dry periods of Simmental cows in their productive traits in organic and conventional milk production.
 The best indicators, regardless of the technology of milk production, were characterized by animals of the middle group, the age of the first fertile insemination of these animals in PE "Galex-Agro" ranged from 526 to 678 days, and in STOV "Miroslavel-Agro" – from 505 to 648 days. The value of this indicator within farms was 462.5 and 458.0 kg, respectively. Therefore, both early insemination and late insemination were not desirable for this herd, because with early insemination farmers don’t get enough milk and there is a high probability of giving birth to calves with lower live weight, while with late insemination there is an irrational overuse of investments in uncovered heifers. their future milk productivity.
 In the conditions of both farms there is a clear pattern that animals with an earlier age of the first fertile insemination are characterized by more intensive formation of live weight. Animals of the first and second experimental groups were statistically significantly superior to peers of the third experimental group in live weight at the age of 3 to 18 months in PE "Galex-Agro", and from 6 to 18 months in STOV "Myroslavel-Agro" (P < 0.05–0.01). There is almost the same live weight of heifers at different ages in both farms, due to the common origin of the breeding stock imported from the Czech Republic.
 It has been established that with increasing age of the first calving milk productivity of cows increases. The highest yield for 305 days (6117.2 and 5937.6 kg) and all lactation (6920.9 and 6953.4 kg) were observed in cows whose age of first calving was 995 and older and 917 and older days in the conditions of PE "Galeks-Agro” and STOV “Myroslavel-Agro” respectively. The lowest yield for 305 days (5733.9 and 5863.0 kg) and all lactation (6528.2 and 6424.6 kg) were in cows with the age of the first calving 835 and less and 778 and less days in both farms, respectively.
 There was a statistically significant effect (P < 0.01–0.001) of the duration of the service period in both farms on the duration of lactation of cows (58.6 and 63.9%), hopes (22.8 and 34.2%), as well as on the fat content in milk (2.2%) only in the conditions of PE "Galex-Agro". In the conditions of intensive management of the dairy industry in organic and conventional production, it is necessary to take into account the rate of reproduction of the herd, which is largely determined by the length of the service period. The service period is one of the key indicators that determines not only the reproduction of animals, but also their future milk productivity.
 Conclusions. According to the results of our own research, it was found that the extension of the service period leads to an increase in the duration of biological periods of reproduction and to a decrease in the coefficient of reproducibility (from 1.06 to 0.68; from 1.05 to 0.72), which is predictable. Statistically significant effect (P < 0.001) of the value of the service period was found in the conditions of PE "Galex-Agro" and LLC "Miroslavel-Agro" on the duration of the interbody period (74.2 and 68.8%), the coefficient of reproducibility and 78.2), as well as the duration of the dry period (2.6%) and the age of the first calving (2.7%) only in the conditions of PE "Galex-Agro".
 When comparing animals with a shortened and optimal duration of the dry period, a statistically significant difference was found in the conditions of organic production in the duration of lactation (25.3 days), milk yield during lactation (673 kg) and 305 days (359 kg), milk fat (13.7), milk protein (13.4 kg), total milk fat and protein production (26.2 kg). In terms of conventional production, animals with a shorter dry period are characterized by longer lactation and higher milk yield.

THE EFFICIENCY OF INDEX SELECTION OF SIMMENTAL LIVESTOCK HERDS IN ORGANIC AND CONVENTIONAL MILK PRODUCTION

The article highlights the results of studies of the effectiveness of index selection in herds of Simmental cattle in organic and conventional milk production using the selection index of R. Teinber, indicating the feasibility of its use, because the indicators of dairy productivity of animals of different groups are significantly different.
 The improvement of the quantitative indicators of milk productivity of cows in the herd of the Simmental breed, both in conventional and organic dairy production, largely depends on the value of the selection index. The strength of the influence of the selection index in the herd of Miroslavel-Agro on milk yield for 305 days of lactation of cows was 67%, milk fat – 88, milk protein – 77, total production of fat and protein – 86%, in the herd of "Galeks-Agro", respectively: 71, 87, 74 and 84% (P < 0.001).
 The first-calf cows of the Simmental breed under the conditions of organic milk production were somewhat dominated by animals of the conventional herd in terms of milk productivity - in terms of milk yield per 305 days of lactation per 114 kg, with an insignificant difference. First-calf cows under conditions of organic milk production had worse reproduction parameters (service period – 136 days, reproductive rate – 0.89), compared to conventional milk production (127 days and 0.91), which is associated with the prohibition of the use of artificial vitamins, hormonal veterinary drugs to stimulate hunting, and shorten the duration of biological periods.
 The lowest milk productivity among the experimental groups were characterized by animals of the fifth group of both herds – their yield for 305 days of the first lactation amounted to 5042 and 4912 kg of milk, fat milk 4.08 and 4.11%, protein milk 3.37 and 3.46%. With a decrease in the selection index in animals has been established a decrease in dairy yield from 6767 (first group) to 5452 kg (fifth group), milk fat – from 290.7 to 204.8, milk protein – from 244.4 to 177.8 kg in the herd "Myroslavel-Agro" and from 7170 (first group) to 4912 kg (fifth group), milk fat – from 303.5 to 201.3, milk protein – from 252.8 to 169.5 kg in stage of "Halex-Agro".
 We recommend to use for repair of a herd of cows whose referred to the first two groups with the value of the selection index not lower than +23.0 (for "Myroslavel-Agro") and +26.3 (for "Galex-Agro"). The worst in terms of milk productivity, with the lowest value of the selection index (respectively: -44.9 and -51.7), it is desirable to sell to subsidiaries or other farms.
 It was found that when selecting animals according to the Tainber`s index, animals in organic and conventional herds are characterized by a lack of harmonious interaction with their habitat - cows are characterized by high dairy yields with simultaneous deterioration of their reproductive capacity, which confirms the well-known inverse relationship between these traits.
 The first-calf cows of the Simmental breed in the conditions of organic milk production slightly outnumber the animals of the conventional herd in terms of dairy productivity - in terms of milk yield for 305 days of lactation by 114 kg (P > 0.05). The first-calf cows in the conditions of organic milk production had worse reproduction parameters (service period – 136 days, reproductive rate – 0.89), compared to conventional milk production (127 days and 0.91). In our opinion, this is due to the peculiarities of the dairy industry in organic milk production and the ban on the use of artificial vitamins, hormonal veterinary drugs to stimulate hunting and reduce the duration of biological periods of reproduction.

Comparison of Heavy Metal Levels of Organic and Conventional Milk and Milk Products in Turkey

This study aimed to determine and compare aluminum (Al), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) levels in conventional and organic milk, white cheese, and butter samples which are sold in the markets of Turkey. Within the scope of the study, totally 72 samples (36 for organic, and 36 for conventional) were collected, and analyzed between March 2010 and February 2011. After the samples were burned by microwave burning, element measurements were performed on atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) device. As a result of the study, on the 49 samples (29 conventional, 20 organic) of the 72 collected product, element levels were determined above the limit of detection (LOD) (0.02 ppm). Pb and Al were the most common elements above the LOD. However, milk samples with a Pb level above the LOD still remained below the limit reported by the Turkish Food Codex Regulation for Contaminants. Since Turkish Food Codex Regulation does not have legal limits for Al, As, Cd and Pb for dairy products (cheese and butter), it was accepted as safe in terms of Al, As, Cd and Pb according to food limits in Turkish Food Codex and ADI values of FAO / WHO.

U.S. Consumer Demand for Plant-Based Milk Alternative Beverages: Hedonic Metric Augmented Barten's Synthetic Model.

Consumers in the U.S. increasingly prefer plant-based milk alternative beverages (abbreviated “plant milk”) to conventional milk. This study is motivated by the need to take into consideration varied nutritional and qualitative attributes in plant milk to examine consumers’ purchasing behavior and estimate demand elasticities which are achieved by a new approach combing hedonic pricing model with Barten’s synthetic demand system. The method of estimation is enlightened from the common practice of companies differentiating their products in multidimensions in terms of attributes. A research dataset was uniquely created by associating the products’ purchase data from Nielsen Homescan dataset with exclusive first-hand nutritional data. Estimations began with creating a multidimensional hedonic attribute space based on the qualitative information of different types of plant milk and conventional milk available to consumers and then calculating the hedonic distances by Euclidean distance measurement to reparametrize Barten’s synthetic demand system. Estimation results showed that the highest own-price elasticity pertained to soy milk which was −0.25. Three plant milk types had inelastic demand. Soy milk exerted substituting effects on all types of conventional milk products and vice versa. Soy milk, rice milk and almond milk entertained complementary relationships between each other and four types of conventional milk were strong substitutes within the group.

Consumers preferences on nutritional attributes of dairy-alternative beverages: hedonic pricing models.

Dairy products, especially milk play a crucial role in assuring dietary quality for U.S. households. However, due to taste, nutrition, health and environmental concerns, households increasingly prefer to consume dairy alternative beverages instead of conventional milk in the U.S. This work is motivated by the need to take into consideration of intrinsic characteristics and differences of such characteristics when analyzing the changes of consumers' purchasing behavior of and willingness to pay for dairy alternative beverages and conventional milk products. After aggregating and organizing the purchase data of Nielsen Homescan and first‐hand nutrition data, this study estimates both linear and semi‐log hedonic pricing models. The results show that consumers exert the highest weights and assign highest evaluation on such qualitative characteristic as nutritional attributes which include calories, protein, fat, vitamin A and vitamin D in which protein is the most valued attribute and other characteristics such as package size, multi pack and brand. The hedonic pricing order and value of these qualitative characteristic are indicative of consumers' purchasing behavior and thus provide essential information for manufacturers to better differentiated their products and develop products catering to consumer's preferred attributes.

Conversion to organic farming decreases the vulnerability of dairy farms

AbstractIn the context of the European crisis in conventional milk production, conventional farms potentially dissimilar to organic farming models are converting to organic. This raises the issue of farm vulnerability during and after this conversion, i.e. the farm’s ability to respond to the effects of technical, climatic and economic risks. Our objective was to show whether and how dairy farm vulnerability can decrease during and after conversion to organic farming. We surveyed a sample of 12 dairy farms in Brittany, France, from 2008 (their last year conventional) to 2013. Our method considered farm vulnerability a function of the initial level of and trend in farm self-sufficient milk productivity, economic efficiency, net profitability per worker and independence from European common agricultural policy (CAP) subsidies. We related these vulnerability variables to explanatory variables that illustrated farm exposure to climatic and economic variability and farming practices. The results show that nearly all farms improved their economic efficiency (11/12), about two thirds improved their self-sufficient milk productivity (8/12) and profitability per worker (7/12), and half improved their independence from CAP subsidies (6/12). Farms had diverse vulnerability patterns, with trade-offs between the initial situation and the trend followed during the conversion, and among vulnerability variables. We identified two main adaptation strategies: (i) pasture-based farms that were similar to organic farming models when conventional and that did not change much during the conversion, and (ii) farms based on maize and feed concentrates when conventional that drastically changed. The latter farms had the greatest decrease in vulnerability and improved their self-sufficient milk productivity, profitability per worker, economic efficiency and independence from CAP subsidies. Overall, variability in climatic and economic conditions had less influence on vulnerability than farming practices. Here, we showed for the first time that changing farming practices by converting to organic farming can be a powerful mechanism for reducing farm vulnerability.

Fair to the cow or fair to the farmer? The preferences of conventional milk buyers for ethical attributes of milk

Conventional dairy farming has been under pressure for lacking animal welfare, biodiversity loss through abandonment and intensification of grassland, and low milk prices during the 2015/16 milk price crisis. The relatively stable organic milk prices during the milk price crisis indicate that consumers have preferences for product characteristics besides the price. We investigate through a choice experiment the willingness-to-pay (WTP) of German conventional milk buyers for ethical attributes of milk production that address the above-mentioned concerns. Respondents have the highest WTP for animal welfare – free-stall plus summer pasture – followed by biodiversity conservation, support for small, below-average income farms, and regional milk production. Respondents also have a positive WTP to support all farms but only in combination with regional production. We further find a positive WTP to support small farms in combination with tethering. This implies animal-welfare concerns are somewhat counterbalanced by fairness aspects. Our insights may support developing labels and agri-environmental policies concerning ethical aspects of conventional milk production.

Evaluation of the Potential of Use of Bovine Manure Biofertilizer Resulting from the Management System of Organic and Conventional Milk Production

Objetivou-se avaliar o potencial de utilizacao como adubo orgânico do biofertilizante, resultante da biodigestao anaerobica de dejetos de bovinos de leite, sob sistema orgânico (DBSO) e convencional (DBSC) de producao. Utilizaram-se oito prototipos de biodigestores abastecidos com os dejetos de bovinos. O delineamento experimental foi o inteiramente casualizado, com 4 repeticoes para cada tratamento. Apos o processo de biodigestao anaerobica foram realizadas analises quimicas, fisico-quimicas e biologicas, de acordo com a Resolucao CONAMA 375/06. Os biofertilizantes oriundos de DBSO e DBSC apresentaram um teor de carbono minimo para serem considerados fertilizantes orgânicos, com valores de 392,4 e 411,9 g kg-1, respectivamente. A biodigestao anaerobica elevou o pH e reduziu a condutividade eletrica (CE) no material efluente, apresentando diferenca estatistica entre os dois tratamentos. Os teores de Mg, K e Fe foram superiores nos biofertilizantes de DBSO e os de Mn, Cu, Zn e Ba foram maiores nos biofertilizantes de DBSC. No biofertilizante oriundo de DBSC o teor de Cd ficou acima do permitido por lei para fertilizantes orgânicos. Portanto, os sistemas de producao de leite influenciam nas caracteristicas quimicas e fisico-quimicas do biofertilizante produzido. O esterco produzido por bovinos sob sistema orgânico de producao de leite demonstrou maior potencial de uso como adubo orgânico quando comparado ao esterco oriundo do manejo convencional.

Pasture-Based versus Conventional Milk Production: Where Is the Profit?

Costs and returns of pasture-based dairy production are compared with those of conventional production using matching samples. Both whole-farm and dairy enterprise-level estimates are made using the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Resource Management Survey data. Conventional farms are matched to pasture-based farms on the basis of operation scale, scope, region, and farmer demographics and adoption of technology. Results show for pasture-based production lower net farm income on per-cow, per-hundredweight milk produced, and total bases. On an enterprise basis, results show for pasture-based production, higher net return over operating cost and lower net return over total cost per hundredweight milk produced.

δ13C values and phytanic acid diastereomer ratios: combined evaluation of two markers suggested for authentication of organic milk and dairy products

Authentication of organic milk by suitable markers is currently attracting more and more interests in food control. In this study, we aimed to compare the efficiency of the markers stable carbon isotope ratio (δ13C value) with the SRR/RRR phytanic acid diastereomer ratio (SRR/RRR) of milk fat for distinguishing different feeding systems. For stable carbon isotope ratio analysis by elemental analysis–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (EA-IRMS), we first developed a simple sample preparation method based on milk fat extracts allowed to evaporate the solvent in tin capsules for liquid samples. The δ13C values and reproducibility measured with this alternative sample pre-treatment method excellently matched those obtained with the current standard method. Applied to milk samples, the results of the EA-IRMS analysis were linked to the SRR/RRR, and both markers allowed to distinguish milk from cows fed with hay (δ13C value > −28.0 ‰, SRR/RRR <1.5) from feed used in conventional milk production which contained maize silage (C4-plants) (p < 0.001). Milk fat of organic retail cheese samples was also highly depleted in 13C (δ13C value −30.0 ‰ ± 1.1), and the SRR/RRR was low (<1.5). However, seven cheese samples showed inconsistent δ13C values and SRR/RRR, most likely due to the feeding of grass silage. Both parameters (δ13C values and SRR/RRR), together with the phytanic acid content of milk fat, also allowed distinguishing between the feeding of high amounts of pasture, hay, and/or grass silage.

Profitability of organic and conventional dairy production with different dietary proportions of high-quality grass silage

The profitability in organic and conventional milk production systems when using three different dietary proportions (51 %, 62 % and 69 % of dry matter) of high-quality grass silage to dairy cows was calculated. Feed intake and milk production data were measured in a dairy cow experiment in which the same types of feeds were used over the entire lactation, but the proportion of forage was increased to three different degrees in the diet. The results of the economic analyses showed that full cost coverage was only reached within the organic production system and that a large herd size (160 cows) was required to achieve economically sustainable dairy production. However, large herd size required large pasture areas in organic production, which can be difficult to achieve in forest-dominated districts. The results of the calculated profitability showed that it was profitable to increase the average dietary proportion of high-quality silage from 51 % to 62 % of dry matter in conventional production with concentrate and grain prices at their current high levels. In organic production, there were only minor differences in calculated profitability between providing the obligatory 60 % and 69 % of dry matter as high-quality silage in the dairy cow diet.

The interaction between milk and beef production and emissions from land use change – critical considerations in life cycle assessment and carbon footprint studies of milk

Two most critical factors to address in environmental system analysis of future milk production are 1) the link between milk and beef production, and 2) the competition for land, possibly leading to land use change (LUC) with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and loss of biodiversity as important implications. Different methodological approaches concerning these factors, in studies on environmental impacts of dairy production, sometimes lead to contradictory results.Increasing milk yield per cow is often one of the solutions discussed in order to reduce GHG emissions from milk production. However, when also accounting for other systems affected (e.g. beef production) it is not certain that an increase in milk yield per cow leads to a reduction in total GHG emissions per kg milk. In the present study the correlation between carbon footprint (CF) of milk and the amount of milk delivered per cow is investigated for 23 dairy farms (both organic and conventional) in Sweden. Use of a fixed allocation factor of 90% (based on economic value) indicates a reduction in CF with increased milk yield, while no correlation can be noted when system expansion is applied. The average CF for two groups of farms, organic and high yielding conventional, is also calculated. When conducting system expansion the CF is somewhat lower for the organic farms (which have a lower milk yield per cow, but more meat per kg milk), but when a 90% allocation factor is used, the CF is somewhat higher for the organic farms compared to the high yielding conventional farms. In analysis of future strategies for milk production, it is suggested that system expansion should be applied, in order to also account for environmental impacts from affected systems. Thus, scenarios for milk and meat production should be analysed in an integrated approach in order to reduce total emissions from the livestock sector.How to account for emissions from LUC is highly debated and there is no current shared consensus. Different LUC methods result in significantly different results. In this study, four different LUC methods are applied, using data for organic milk production and high yielding conventional milk production systems in Sweden. Depending on which LUC method was applied, the organic system showed about 50% higher or 40% lower CF compared to the conventional high yielding system. Thus, when reporting CF numbers, it is important to report LUC-factors separately and clearly explain the underlying assumptions, since the method of accounting for LUC can drastically change the results.

Short communication: Influence of the muscle hypertrophy mutation of the myostatin gene on milk production traits and milk fatty acid composition in dual-purpose Belgian Blue dairy cattle

The objective of this study was to estimate genetic effects for the muscle hypertrophy mutation (mh) of the myostatin gene for conventional milk production traits and for milk fatty acid composition in dual-purpose Belgian Blue dairy cows. For the present study, only cows from a single herd, in which genotype frequencies were as balanced as possible (0.266 for +/+, 0.523 for mh/+, and 0.211 for mh/mh), were chosen to avoid confounding between herd and genotype effects. A total of 109 cows with 3,190 test-day records for fat, protein, and milk yields and 1,064 test-day records for saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids were used for the calculations. Variance component and gene effect estimations were performed via expectation-maximization REML and BLUP methods, respectively, using a multi-trait mixed test-day model with an additional fixed regression on the muscle hypertrophy genotype. Results showed that one copy of the wild-type “+” allele led to a significant additive effect of 26.35 g/d for fat yield. Significant dominance effects of 23.22 g/d for protein yield and 30.28 g/d for fat yield were also observed. In contrast, a nonsignificant trend was observed in favor of lower saturated fatty acid contents in milk for one copy of the mutant “mh” allele. Concerning milk, fat, and protein yields, our results confirmed literature results indicating a superior effect of the “+” allele compared with the mutant allele. Therefore, the selection of the “+” allele has the potential to increase conventional milk production traits in the dual-purpose Belgian Blue breed. However, when focus is given to milk fatty acid profile, a possible antagonistic effect between the benefit of the “+” allele for higher milk production and the “mh” allele for reduced saturated fatty acid content in milk should be confirmed in further studies.

Dynamics of gastrointestinal parasitoses in goats kept in organic and conventional production systems in Brazil

The objectives of this paper were to analyze the dynamics of gastrointestinal helminthiasis in Saanen goats maintained in organic and conventional milk production systems during pregnancy, parturition and lactation. In the conventional system, the animals were kept under continuous grazing and dewormed monthly. In the organic system, no anthelminthics were used, the animals were kept under rotational grazing and separated by age. The goats in the organic systemic had higher fecal egg counts (p<0.05) than the goats in the conventional system during pregnancy and parturition, with no statistical difference (p>0.05) during lactation. The peripartum period was a risk factor for the occurrence of clinical parasitism in animals with a greater predisposition in the herd, thereby increasing the infestation of pastures. In the conventional system, even with monthly deworming, the animals were moderately infected, thus demonstrating the possibility that helminth resistance or high reinfection rates might develop. Although no anthelminthics were used in the animals raised in the organic system, they showed a moderate degree of infection, thus indicating that management might be present a viable option for sustained helminth control.

Organic and conventional milk purchase behaviors in Central Ohio

The authors use weekly milk scanner data from six stores of a national supermarket chain to investigate empirically the purchasing patterns of suburban and inner-city residents for conventional and organic milk. They disaggregate conventional milk products into four categories based on fat content (whole, 2%, 1%, and skim); organic milk is disaggregated into these same categories, but for empirical estimation, some categories are combined. Their descriptive statistics show that suburban consumers, relative to inner-city consumers, purchase more organic and lower-fat conventional milk. These same consumers pay higher prices for conventional and organic milk, save for conventional 1% and skim milk. Our econometric results indicate that suburban consumers are price insensitive toward the purchase of all conventional and organic classes; inner-city consumers are price-sensitive toward conventional whole and 2% milk—products that constitute 89% of their milk expenditure; these same consumers are price insensitive toward all other classes of conventional and organic milk. [JEL codes: Q110, Q130, Q180]. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Deregulation and dairy production systems: a Bayesian distance function approach

Milk quota trading rules differ across EU member countries. In Denmark a biannual milk quota exchange was set up in 1997 to promote a more efficient reallocation of milk quotas as well as to reduce transaction costs related to the searching and matching of sellers and buyers. Using two comprehensive unbalanced panel data sets on organic and conventional milk farms this study attempts to disentangle the effects of the introduction of quota transferability on the production structure of those farms as well as the probability of market entry/exit. Bayesian estimation techniques are used to estimate an input oriented generalized Leontief distance function as well as a curvature constrained specification. The results suggest that the deregulation in the quota allocation mechanism led to an increased allocative efficiency of organic as well as conventional milk production as well as a relative shift of the PPF in favor of the production of organic milk.

Characteristics, Costs and Issues for Organic Dairy Farming

Organic milk production has been one of the fastest growing segments of organic agriculture in the United States in recent years. Despite the growing number of organic dairy operations, the characteristics of organic dairy operations and the relative costs of organic and conventional milk production have been difficult to analyze. This study, using 2005 ARMS data for U.S. dairy operations, which include a targeted sample of organic milk producers, examines the structure, costs, and challenges of organic milk production. The analysis addresses economies of size, regional differences, and pasture use in organic milk production and compares organic and conventional milk production costs. The findings suggest that economic forces have made organic operations more like conventional operations and that the future structure of the industry may depend on the interpretation and implementation of new organic pasture rules.

Attributional and consequential LCA of milk production

Different ways of performing a life cycle assessment (LCA) are used to assess the environmental burden of milk production. A strong connection exists between the choice between attributional LCA (ALCA) and consequential LCA (CLCA) and the choice of how to handle co-products. Insight is needed in the effect of choice on results of environmental analyses of agricultural products, such as milk. The main goal of this study was to demonstrate and compare ALCA and CLCA of an average conventional milk production system in The Netherlands. ALCA describes the pollution and resource flows within a chosen system attributed to the delivery of a specified amount of the functional unit. CLCA estimates how pollution and resource flows within a system change in response to a change in output of the functional unit. For an average Dutch conventional milk production system, an ALCA (mass and economic allocation) and a CLCA (system expansion) were performed. Impact categories included in the analyses were: land use, energy use, climate change, acidification and eutrophication. The comparison was based on four criteria: hotspot identification, comprehensibility, quality and availability of data. Total environmental burdens were lower when using CLCA compared with ALCA. Major hotspots for the different impact categories when using CLCA and ALCA were similar, but other hotspots differed in contributions, order and type. As experienced by the authors, ALCA and use of co-product allocation are difficult to comprehend for a consequential practitioner, while CLCA and system expansion are difficult to comprehend for an attributional practitioner. Literature shows concentrates used within ALCA will be more understandable for a feeding expert than the feed used within CLCA. Outcomes of CLCA are more sensitive to uncertainties compared with ALCA, due to the inclusion of market prospects. The amount of data required within CLCA is similar compared with ALCA. The main cause of these differences between ALCA and CLCA is the fact that different systems are modelled. The goal of the study or the research question to be answered defines the system under study. In general, the goal of CLCA is to assess environmental consequences of a change in demand, whereas the goal of ALCA is to assess the environmental burden of a product, assuming a status-quo situation. Nowadays, however, most LCA practitioners chose one methodology independent of their research question. This study showed it is possible to perform both ALCA (mass and economic allocation) and CLCA (system expansion) of milk. Choices of methodology, however, resulted in differences in: total quantitative outcomes, hotspots, degree of understanding and quality. We recommend LCA practitioners to better distinguish between ALCA and CLCA in applied studies to reach a higher degree of transparency. Furthermore, we recommend LCA practitioners of different research areas to perform similar case studies to address differences between ALCA and CLCA of the specific products as the outcomes might differ from our study.