Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Research Articles

Ambient Temperature Effects on Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions of a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle

The ambient temperature affects the operation of different powertrain systems, including electric, hybrid electric, and internal combustion engines. This study investigated the effect of the ambient temperature on the energy consumption and CO2 emissions of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle running in different powertrain modes. The vehicle was driven for 4150 km following a selected route 199 times in different powertrain modes and in different ambient temperatures ranging from −24 °C to 32 °C. Instantaneous and cumulative fuel consumptions were measured using a fuel flow meter, and the battery energy usage was determined from the vehicle telematics during each test. The total energy consumption and total CO2 emissions were affected by the ambient temperature in all powertrain modes, including electric, hybrid electric (charge-depleting and charge-sustaining), and conventional internal combustion engine modes. The highest increase was associated with the charge-depleting hybrid electric mode, with 350% and 290% increases in energy consumption and CO2 emissions when the ambient temperature dropped from 29 °C to −24 °C. The conventional internal combustion engine mode was the least affected, with only 7% and 8% increased in energy consumption and CO2 emissions, respectively.

Electrified fleet and infrastructure aware energy efficient routing

This paper presents an optimization framework to improve the energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness of fleets of commercial trucks operating pick-ups and deliveries in urban areas. As the electrification of transportation is moving from passenger cars to medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, the proposed analysis considers a fleet of pick-up and delivery trucks that includes conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV), as well as battery electric vehicles (BEV), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV). Given a set of pick-ups and deliveries, and a fleet including different types of vehicles, the goal is twofold: assign the best vehicle to each task, and solve the vehicle routing problem, i.e., find the optimal route to navigate the vehicle from the origin to the destination(s). To estimate the energy consumption of the different vehicles, vehicle dynamics are considered, together with actual charging infrastructure and road data, including speed limits, road grade, and stop signs. Moreover, the total cost of ownership (TCO) is evaluated to estimate the cost-effectiveness of different fleet compositions and operations. To solve this problem, a hybrid simulated annealing (HSA) heuristic algorithm is proposed. The algorithm is validated against a benchmark exact solver based on mixed integer linear programming (MILP). The proposed methodology achieves optimal results with a 1.2% optimality gap compared to the benchmark, surpassing MILP in computational efficiency. The research findings highlight how fleet composition and operational strategies can vary significantly based on whether the focus is on energy efficiency, total cost of ownership, or a combination of the two, also depending on the number of years of operation. Simulation case studies in the Columbus, OH area demonstrate that integrating fleet and recharging infrastructure information alongside energy savings in vehicle routing problem solutions can achieve 30% to 50% savings in fleet operation costs compared to solely optimizing for minimum energy consumption.

Feasibility Study of Solar-Powered Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure at Selected Petrol Stations in Malaysia

The transition from the conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) to electric vehicles (EV) are expected to result in higher total electricity demand in the country. With the introduction of more EVs into the market, the need for charging stations will grow, subsequently increasing power consumption. This research study aims to assess the potential of solar energy production at petrol stations in central region of Peninsular Malaysia and assess the feasibility of solar-powered petrol stations in meeting the energy demands of electric vehicles. 10 samples of existing petrol stations are selected to install a solar-powered DC charging station as a case study. To study their energy consumption, 90kW DC charger was evaluated. The design of the PV systems for the petrol stations was done by using the PVsyst simulation software. As a result, it is found that 90% of the designed PV systems are able to generate enough energy to meet the estimated annual energy consumption of the 90kW DC charging system. The results also showed that the cost to install the solar-powered charging system for both power ratings can be recouped in less than 2 years. Overall, this research study offers valuable insights for addressing the rising energy consumption resulting from the increased penetration of electric vehicles in the future. Additionally, the implementation of solar-powered charging infrastructure aligns with the country’s renewable energy objectives and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, the assessment of EV penetration and the adoption of charging infrastructure was conducted based on government targets rather than relying on current data regarding the actual numbers and trends of EVs and chargers in Malaysia. The availability of accurate and up-to-date data on the number of EVs, their battery characteristics, chargers, and user charging behaviors in Malaysia would contribute to further enhancing this research work.

Clean energy synergy with electric vehicles: Insights into carbon footprint

This study empirically examines the impact of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and clean energy adoption on carbon footprints. With growing concerns over climate change and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the transition to electric vehicles and clean energy sources has gained significant attention as potential solutions. This research investigates the relationship between the adoption of EVs and clean energy technologies and their subsequent effect on carbon footprints. The study applied the Generalised Method Moments (GMM) on the data sourced from the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Development Indicators (WDI) for the period 2011–2021 covering 27 countries. The findings reveal a strong correlation between the adoption of EVs and reductions in carbon footprints. It shows that a 1 % increase in renewable electricity output would result in a 0.5 % decline in carbon footprints. This implies that, as EV sales increase, the overall carbon emissions from the transportation sector decrease, primarily due to the lower emissions associated with electric vehicles compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Additionally, the study finds that the integration of clean energy sources into the electricity grid further contributes to carbon footprint reductions. The use of renewable energy in charging EVs minimizes the indirect emissions associated with electricity generation. The research concludes that the widespread adoption of EVs and clean energy sources has the potential to significantly reduce carbon footprints and mitigate the impact of climate change. However, it emphasizes the importance of continued technological advancements, increased availability of charging infrastructure, and supportive government policies to accelerate the transition towards a low-carbon transportation and energy system. Therefore, the study highlights the need for collaborative efforts among governments, industry stakeholders, and individuals to foster sustainable practices and achieve a more environmentally friendly future.

A Green Vehicle Adoptions and Its Impediments: A Bibliometric Review

The green vehicle is responsible for considerably lower emissions than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and is one of the important components of meeting global commitments on climate change. However, the consumers’ adoption is far beyond expectations. To this end, this paper contributes to the extant literature on green vehicle adoption and its impediments by assessing the publication trends and network visualization leveraging the bibliometric analysis method. Meanwhile, key research clusters are outlined and visualized to analyse the underlying knowledge structure. The 347 articles collected from the Scopus database were later analysed using bibliometric tools, VOSviewer, and Harzing’s Publish or Perish. The results presented in this paper assist researchers with a structured understanding and knowledge of green vehicle adoption research and its impediments.

Beyond the Current State of the Art in Electric Vehicle Technology in Robotics and Automation

The improvement of electric vehicles and their parts is currently the subject of several recent innovations, with an emphasis on advancements in batteries, energy management systems, autonomous features, and charging infrastructure. The current logistics and transportation (L&T) systems comprise heterogeneous fleets made up of both conventional internal combustion engine cars and other vehicle types that use environmentally friendly technology, such as electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles. This helps significantly to the development of the upcoming generations of electric vehicles and promotes a more sustainable and effective ecosystem. This article offers insights into the most recent advancements in the field of electric cars (EVs) as new and innovative EV technologies based on data and statistics from science that may prove to be technically possible by 2030. Potential design and modeling techniques, including digital twins with linked IoT, are discussed in this paper. Additionally, all EV-related topics are covered, including hard-core battery material sciences, power electronics, and powertrain engineering, as well as market and environmental considerations and prospective technological obstacles and research gaps. This investigation is interesting since it offers thorough information on every facet of EVs. In conclusion, we offer to the readers several open issues in the field of EV as well as specific research directions to wrap up our work.

Optimization of PEMFC pressure control using fractional PI/D controller with non-integer order: design and experimental evaluation

The fuel-based proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is a promising technology for clean energy production owing to the several advantages including high efficiency (around 80% theoretical), quiet in operation, and almost zero emission as compared to conventional internal combustion engine. Only hydrogen and oxygen are supplied at the anode and cathode, respectively to generate power and water is produced as by product. However, it suffers to achieve its maximum theoretical efficiency due to lack of flow/pressure management of hydrogen and oxygen in the PEMFC stack which also causes flooding within the cell and reduce the performance of the catalyst and reduces the efficiency. The higher efficiency can be achieved with the proper control of the hydrogen and oxygen inlet flow rate and pressure at the PEMFC. Since it’s crucial to maintaining a consistent supply of exponential pressure, the main focus of this work is pressure regulation at the PEMFC cathode side. A fractional PI/D controller is designed to operate the PEMFC system more realistically. There are three primary objectives of this research work. In the first step, monitoring the PEMFC operating pressure to find out the suitable fractional PI-D controller for a given resilience level, which has the lowest Integration Absolute Error (IAE) to disturbances. The robustness level and/or threshold peak is considered as a tuning parameter for the evaluation. Second, compare the best IAE performance of the fractional PI-D controller with that of simple SIMC rules, where a certain level of resilience is achieved by varying the SIMC tuning variable. Through this comparison, the effectiveness of the recommended controller in achieving the optimal plant performance is evaluated. Thirdly, design a non-integer order PEMFC plant with a fractional controller using MATLAB software and compare the results with existing models. This comparison provides insight into the practical performance of the proposed controller. The results shows that the developed fractional PI/D controller is able to control the pressure very efficiently at the PEMFC cathode side. The findings further emphasise on the important to consider the resilience and robustness levels at the time of developing control systems for PEMFCs. The efficacy of the suggested unique technique is further confirmed by contrasting the suggested controller with the developed models.

Potential of Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine for the Decarbonised Passenger Vehicle

CO2 regulations are becoming very stringent due to the goal of reducing greenhouse gases and achieving carbon neutrality. It has already become a common situation that electric vehicles are emerging as eco-friendly power systems rather than vehicles equipped with conventional internal combustion engines and their share in the market is increasing. However, even with an internal combustion engine, CO2 can be drastically reduced if a carbon-free fuel such as hydrogen is used. Raw nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions can be overcome to a certain level through ultra-lean burn operation, but in order to balance the amount of hydrogen and air in the limited space of the combustion chamber, a drop in the engine’s maximum output should be accepted. Hyundai Motor Company (HMC) also previously developed an engine using hydrogen fuel (), but was unable to progress to mass production. Since then, hybrid technology has become popular, and with the development of hydrogen injection devices, an era has arrived where mass production becomes a possibility. For this reason, studies on internal combustion engines using hydrogen fuel based on existing spark ignition or compression ignition engines are rapidly increasing. In this study, a hydrogen fuel engine was designed and manufactured based on the mass produced gasoline spark ignition engine. CO2 level was confirmed from initial performance evaluation, and it was found that raw NOx levels and maximum power were in a trade-off relationship with each other under the same air-charging system application. In addition, the method to improve maximum engine torque was verified while maintaining the raw NOx level, and the maximum engine power improvement level was confirmed when raw NOx emissions were allowed to increase. Thereby the potential of the carbon-neutral internal combustion engine has been demonstrated.

Factors influencing household VMT considering differences between ICE and electric vehicles

AbstractThis study examines factors affecting household vehicle miles traveled (VMT) with a focus on the differences between electric vehicles (EVs) and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). This study mainly utilizes detailed individual‐level data from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey‐California Add‐on (2017 NHTS‐CA). We first classify households into three groups such as (1) households with only ICEVs, (2) households with only EVs, and (3) households with both ICEVs and EVs. We then employ ordinary least square regression models to analyze the determinants of household VMT across three groups. Second, we focus on households with both ICEVs and EVs to look at the substitute patterns between ICEVs and EVs. We employ a fractional logit model to analyze the factors affecting the share of EVs' VMT in total household VMT. Key findings are as follows. First, households with only EVs tend to have lower household VMT than others. Second, available charging stations near residential locations lead to longer households VMT in households with only EVs. Third, employment density has different effects on household VMT by groups. For instance, high employment density leads to shorter household VMT in households with only ICEVs and with both ICEVs and EVs. On the other hand, high employment density reveals a statistically positive effect on household VMT in households with only EVs. Lastly, in households with both ICEVs and EVs, the share of EVs' VMT is likely to increase in total household VMT if EVs are used more for work trips and shopping/family errands.

Simulation methodology and numerical comparison of boxer and opposed free piston linear generator configuration in 0D/1D environment

Free Piston Linear Generators (FPLGs) are thermal machines suitable for both stationary power generation unit (PU) and vehicle propulsion. They convert chemical energy from the fuel into electric energy to charge a battery using a linear electric generator. Due to the reduction of friction losses and the ability to work with different compression ratios, FPLGs are potentially characterized by high overall global efficiency with respect to a conventional alternative internal combustion engine. Like conventional internal combustion engines, FPLGs have several configurations: single piston, dual piston, opposed piston and boxer are the configurations considered in this work. Two configurations are compared in this paper from a functional and energetic perspective: opposed piston (Opposed) and Boxer. This is done with the aim to highlights pro and cons of these configurations. They are modelled using the 0D/1D modelling coupling GT-Power® and Simulink®. The comparison between the two configurations was done modelling the architecture with the same size and in two-strokes operating mode. The comparison of the two configurations highlights differences between them in terms of scavenging process, thermodynamic efficiency and global energy efficiency, putting in evidence what aspects need to be improved for each configuration and what are their advantageous features. Boxer configuration can provide less power due to lower volumetric efficiency compared to the Opposed configuration. Boxer configuration can provide 102.2 kW while Opposed can provide 110.0 kW at full load with a frequency of 20 Hz (equivalent to 1200 rpm). The Opposed configuration results in lower heat loss but higher energy lost at the exhaust. The final balance shows that Boxer configuration has a slightly higher brake efficiency (equal to 28.9 %) compared to the value found for Opposed (27.6 %).

Proposed solution for the electrification of a motor vehicle formerly powered by an internal combustion engine (case study: Oltcit)

A vehicle powered by electricity is a kind of alternative fuel-powered automobile that uses electrically powered engines and controllers for them in place of a conventional internal combustion engine. Instead of burning a carbon-based fuel, power is generated using battery packs. This not only results in monetary savings but also has an extremely reduced negative influence on the surrounding natural environment. The high price that a buyer must pay to get one of the electric cars that are now on the market is one disadvantage. In this article, we explore the possibility of developing an electric vehicle with the use of an electrical conversion kit. The fundamentals and constituent parts of electric car systems will be broken down, and the procedure for transitioning from an internal combustion engine vehicle to an electric vehicle will be analyzed in this paper.

Stability of a Ro-Ro Ship: An Assessment of the Impact of Electric Vehicle Transportation

In terms of service lives, ships have the ability to remain operational for extended periods of time, potentially exceeding several decades. Changes in machinery and equipment are dependent on technological improvements. The above change is most noticeable in the components that make up ship systems. Nonetheless, the movement of ships on the water involves research into a variety of topics, including static-dynamic equilibrium and the demands of speed and power. The study focuses on the growing fascination with electric automobiles, which can be ascribed to technology improvements, environmental policies, and the concept's widespread acceptance. As a result, there has been a boom in interest in purchasing electric vehicles and using them for transportation. When conventional internal combustion engine automobiles are considered during the design process of marine vessels that transport land vehicles, it is expected that electric vehicles (EVs) will be primarily transported by Roll-on/Roll-off (Ro-Ro) ships in the foreseeable future. However, weight discrepancies exist between electric vehicles and other models in the same category. The significant weight attributed to batteries emphasizes the significant possibility for advancement in modern battery technology. The purpose of this research is to look into the variations in the stability of a Ro-Ro vessel when transporting an equal number and weight of EVs and conventional automobiles.

Research on the New Power of Car Making Ideal Car

In response to the escalating depletion of fossil fuel reserves and the detrimental environmental impacts of conventional internal combustion engine vehicles, the global automotive industry is undergoing a transformative shift towards clean, sustainable, and energy-efficient new energy vehicles (NEVs). This article scrutinizes the remarkable ascent of Ideal Cars, a prominent player in the burgeoning Chinese NEV market. In light of these developments, this scholarly examination explores the multifaceted determinants underpinning Ideal Cars' remarkable trajectory, encompassing its foundational evolution, distinctive technological orientation, nuanced user-centric approach, financial performance, scene-based marketing strategies, and innovative organizational structure. This comprehensive analysis underscores the imperative nature of consumer-oriented product design, the psychological aspects of consumer satisfaction, and the paramount influence of market dynamics in shaping the success of high-end automotive ventures. Ideal Cars' unprecedented journey serves as an instructive case study for the prospective evolution of the NEV industry in China and globally.

An Overview of Influence of Hybridization in Automobiles on its Performance and Environment

The rapid advancements in transportation technology have led to the development of Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) and smart hybrid electric vehicles (S-HEVs) as potential solutions for reducing fuel consumption, emissions, and dependency on fossil fuels. These vehicles combine conventional internal combustion engine propulsion systems with electric propulsion systems, offering various driving modes and the ability to adjust operation points for increased efficiency. Additionally, HEVs and S-HEVs contribute to the creation of alternative power sources for household applications, provide ancillary services to the grid, and integrate intermittent resources for vehicle charging. The reliability of Electric Vehicle (EV) batteries is a crucial aspect, involving failure recognition, testing methods, and life prediction techniques to ensure prolonged battery life. As countries worldwide strive to transition from gasoline vehicles to EVs, practical limitations such as "range anxiety" due to inadequate charging infrastructure and high costs of long-ranged EVs arise. One potential solution to address range anxiety is the use of range extenders, optimizing driving range, costs, and vehicle performance. These advancements in eco-friendly, safer, and cost-effective transportation contribute significantly to reducing carbon emissions and promoting sustainable development globally.

Comparative Analysis of Operational Advantages and Disadvantages Between Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles and Electric Vehicles based on Tesla

The automotive industry is undergoing a transformative phase driven by concerns over environmental sustainability, energy efficiency, and technological advancements. In this context, the shift from conventional internal combustion engine vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) has emerged as a focal point. This paper conducts a comparative analysis of operational pros and cons between conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and electric vehicles, using Tesla as a case study. This paper undertakes a comprehensive comparative analysis of financial and operational aspects among leading automotive companies: Tesla, Volkswagen, and Toyota. This comparative exploration highlights the transformative potential of the new energy vehicle sector.

Design and Simulation of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Capacitive Pressure Sensor for Thermal Runaway Detection in the Electric Vehicle

Recent advancement of vehicle technologies has resulted in development of replacing conventional Internal combustion engine (ICE) to Electric Vehicle (EV) mostly powered by Lithium-ion batteries (LIB). These batteries contain massive amount of energy confined in a very small space. Thermal runaway occurs when the batteries and its circuits start to heat up anomaly. Thermal runaway can cause failures that can lead to battery ignition, resulting in explosions and imminent threats to life and property. This research focused on MEMS capacitance pressure sensor, using three distinct square slotted diaphragm designs: clamped-square, four-slotted-square, and eight-slotted-square diaphragms. The investigation commenced with an evaluation of diaphragm performance, and subsequently, the diaphragm was integrated into the structure of the MEMS capacitive pressure sensor and subjected to simulation. Varied pressure levels ranging from 0.1 to 0.35 MPa were applied to both the diaphragm and the pressure sensor. The outcomes revealed that the eight-slotted-square diaphragm yielded the most substantial displacement, registering at 5.507 µm. It also exhibited the highest Mises stress of 644.67 MPa, and recorded the highest mechanical sensitivity at 15.7545 (10-12/Pa). The clamped-square design, despite its slotted area, yielded the highest capacitance value among the three designs for the pressure sensor.

Emission Characteristics of Particle Number from Conventional Gasoline and Hybrid Vehicles

Vehicular particle number (PN) emissions have garnered increasing attention. In this study, nine light-duty vehicles, involving conventional internal combustion engine gasoline vehicles (ICEVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), underwent testing on a chassis dynamometer to elucidate key factors influencing PN emissions. We found that with more stringent emission standards Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) vehicles exhibited a reduction in PN emission factors. Higher PN emissions for GDI vehicles than vehicles with Multi-Port Fuel Injection (PFI) engines were observed; meanwhile, HEV showed lower PN emissions than ICEVs. PN emissions for cold start consistently exceeded warm start across vehicles with different standards and technologies. Notably, China VI HEV exhibited a substantial 19.2-fold increase in PN emissions for cold start compared to warm start. Analysis on a second-by-second basis revealed that cold-start emissions concentrated in low speed, while warm-start emissions were prominent in extra-high speed. Concerning vehicle specific power (VSP), the lowest mean PN emission rate occurred during idle conditions. PN emissions for China IV-VI ICEVs with GDI engines would increase with the increasing VSP, whereas China VI ICEVs with PFI engines and HEV with GDI engines showed varied patterns of PN emissions, especially under cold start. Our study would further facilitate formulating effective strategies for vehicular PN emissions.

Strategies for Reducing Booming Noise Generated by the Tailgate of an Electric Sport Utility Vehicle

This article investigates the source of booming noise emanating from the tailgate of an electric sport utility vehicle (SUV), along with proposed strategies to mitigate it. This annoying low-frequency booming noise, which significantly impacts interior sound quality, is less perceptible in conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. However, this noise is more readily detected in electric SUVs, highlighting the necessity for focused measures to reduce it. This study involved the measurement of booming noises during on-road vehicle tests to pinpoint their origins. Additionally, ODSs were extracted from the tailgate vibration signals to gain insight into its dynamic behavior. Modal tests were conducted on the tailgate to determine its dynamic characteristics and compared with driving test results to reveal the mechanism responsible for tailgate-induced booming noise. It was established that such noise is primarily due to the tailgate modes, resulting from a combination of rigid body motion in the fore-aft direction and deformation in the central section of the panel. An analytical model of the tailgate was developed using commercial finite-element analysis software to propose measures for reducing booming noise. Experimental findings validated this model’s accuracy. Structural enhancements were implemented to enhance the panel stiffness and improve the connection between the vehicle and tailgate via bushings to reduce the booming noise resulting from tailgate motion. Under random force inputs, the analytical results demonstrated a 13.8% reduction in maximum deformation in the tailgate model in the improved structural configuration with increased panel stiffness. This study identifies the mechanism generating booming noise, establishes a practical and simple dynamic model, and proposes improvement measures aimed at reducing the booming noise.

CanmetMINING diesel and BEV field test series: MacLean Engineering diesel and battery electric cassette truck

ABSTRACT In light of Canada’s goal of achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 and conditions in increasingly deeper mines, the trend in Canadian mines is to move away from conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and toward battery electric vehicles (BEVs). However, the limited driving range and the longer time required to recharge a battery than refuel a tank could reduce BEV availability and negatively affect production targets. Understanding the differences between these two technologies is critical when designing a new mine or transforming an existing fossil fuel-based fleet into an electric fleet. Thus, the primary objective of this study was to compare diesel cassette trucks (DCTs) and electric cassette trucks (ECTs) in terms of net fuel and energy consumption, respectively. MacLean Engineering heavy-duty DCTs and ECTs were field-tested at Vale’s North Mine surface ramp at 5 and 15 km/h and loaded with the same weight. The controlled 2.5-km test route comprised 10 sections of 0, 5, 10, and 20% uphill and downhill inclination grades. This paper compares DCT and ECT performance in terms of ability to maintain the target speed under different operational conditions and fuel and energy consumption. The energy captured through regenerative braking and charging information was also evaluated for the ECT. An energy to fuel ratio (kWh/L) was calculated for various operating conditions. Furthermore, the data were used in a hypothetical duty cycle to estimate DCT and ECT availability within a work shift.

Battery Technologies in Electric Vehicles: Improvements in Electric Battery Packs

Restrictions on fossil fuels and related environmental pollution issues motivate many organizations and countries to set their focus on electric vehicles (EVs) rather than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles [1], [2]. EVs require an energy storage system to store converted electric power in another form of energy and then reconvert the stored energy to electric power whenever it is required. The energy stored can be converted to electric energy for various uses, such as movement, lighting, and heating (although accessories are supplied by a 12-V auxiliary battery; the auxiliary battery is supplied by the main battery pack or by recuperative energy). Fortunately, many electrical energy storage technologies are available, with some offered commercially while others are in the research and development stage [3], [4]. Electrochemical energy storage systems use various technologies [5], [6]. Energy storage systems, the heart of EVs, are composed of battery cells, battery modules, and a battery pack. Researchers work on various sections of battery packs to improve their performance [7]. These sections are illustrated in Figure 1. As shown in the figure, some EV battery technology developers are studying chemical materials to increase the capacity, power, energy density, safety, and cell voltage. In the past century, the most common batteries for EV applications were Pb–acid and Ni-based batteries [8]. In current use, Li-ion-based batteries are at the top.