Fly Control Research Articles

Medfly Population Suppression through Augmentative Release of an Introduced Parasitoid in an Irrigated Multi-Fruit Orchard of Central–Western Argentina

Biological control through the augmentative release of parasitoids is an important complementary tool that may be incorporated into other strategies for the eradication/eco-friendly control of pest fruit flies. However, not much information is available on the effectiveness of fruit fly parasitoids as biocontrol agents in semi-arid and temperate fruit-growing regions. Therefore, this study evaluated the effect of augmentative releases of the larval parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) on Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (medfly) populations over two fruit seasons (2013 and 2014) on a 10 ha irrigated fruit farm in San Juan province, central-western Argentina. The parasitoids were mass reared on irradiated medfly larvae of the Vienna-8 temperature-sensitive lethal genetic sexing strain. About 1692 (±108) parasitoids/ha were released per each of the 13 periods throughout each fruit season. Another similar farm was chosen as a control of non-parasitoid release. The numbers of captured adult flies in food-baited traps and of recovered fly puparia from sentinel fruits were considered the main variables to analyze the effect of parasitoid release on fly population suppression using a generalized least squares model. The results showed a significant decrease (p < 0.05) in the medfly population on the parasitoid release farm when compared to the Control farm, demonstrating the effectiveness of augmentative biological control using this exotic parasitoid. Thus, D. longicaudata could be used in combination with other medfly suppression strategies in the fruit production valleys of San Juan.

The efficacy of protection by modern insecticides in the industrial cherry plantations against cherry fruit fly pest

Goal. To investigate an efficacy of the insecticides Aktelik 500 ЕС, (pyrymyphos-methyl 500 g/l), Calipso 480 SС (thiacloprid, 480 g/l), Proclaim 50 SG (emamectyn benzoat, 50 g/ kg), Movento 100 SC (spirotetramate, 100 g/l), Exirel, СЕ (cyantraniliprole, 100 g/l) and bio products Actofit, EC (aversektyn С, 0.2%), bitoxybacilyn — BTU, (insecticide), (Bacillus thuringiensis. endospores, endotoxyn, exotoxyn) and Lepidocyd-BTU, (insecticide), (Bacillus thuringiensis var. Kurstaki, endospores, endotoxyn) on a reduction of a number and a harmfulness of cherry fruit fly (Rhagoletis cerasi L.) it impact on yields in industrial cherry orchards.&#x0D; Methods. A field method, in the industrial orchards in educational production department of university. A type of cherry trees — Regina and Alfa. Planting scheme — 4.0 × 5.0 m. Year of planting — 1996. Crown shape — sparsely (improved) — tiered. Rootstock — antipka. Phases of plant development at application timing — «fruit development, (fruits about 90% of the final size)» (BBCH 81) and («fruits ripening phase») (BBCH 85). Soil — shallow, low — humus dusty — loamy podzolic leached black soils: humus content — 1.3—2.5%; pH 4.8—5.2; mobile compounds Р2О5 — 130—180 mg/kg and К2О — 8.9—9.2 mg/kg (by Chirikov method). The measures for care of the experimental site — loosening a soil in the stem strips during the growing period, an application of organic and mineral fertilizers, a pruning, a splaying of grass between the rows (row spacing), a protection from pests and diseases. The technical effectiveness of applications was determined in different rates against blood-red aphids and their impact on yields in commercial apple orchards. Calculations were made according to generally accepted methods in in horticulture, plant protection and entomology.&#x0D; Results. The use of insecticides Aktelik 500 ЕС, Calypso 480 SС), Proclaim 50 SG, Movento 100 SC Exirel, СЕ against cherry fruit fly helped to decrease number of pests on 91.4—98.9% — 93.7—97.6% accordingly. It allowed to obtain a high — grade cherries product with a yield of 1.7—1.9 times and 1.4—2.1 times higher comparing to control. The outcome of non-standard products did not exceed 0.4—0.6% compared to 34.9—44.3% in the control (water treatment). The efficacy of bio products was 32.9—40.4%. It confirms their low efficacy against this pest.&#x0D; Conclusions. The use of insecticides Aktelik 500 ЕС, Calypso 480 SС, Proclaim 50 SG, Movento 100 SC, Exirel, СЕ allows to achieve high efficacy of cherry fruit fly control in industrial plantations, to manage it number and population during whole month (the period of larva development). A limitation of pest number in cherry orchard by using the studied treatments provided a yield increase and a marketable quality of the obtained fruit products.

Forest conversion into pasture selects dung beetle traits at different biological scales depending on species pool composition.

The conversion of forests into open areas has large effects on the diversity and structure of native communities. The intensity of these effects may vary between regions, depending on the existence of native species adapted to open habitats in the regional pool or the time since habitat change.We assess the differences in species richness and functional diversity of dung beetle communities (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) between native forests and novel pasturelands of the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, two biomes with contrasting histories of human occupation in Brazil. We conducted standardized surveys in seven forest fragments and adjacent pastures in each region and measured 14 traits in individuals collected in each type of habitat at each particular site. We calculated functional richness, functional evenness, functional divergence, and community-weighted mean of traits for each area, and analyzed individual variation through nested variance decomposition and Trait Statistics.Communities were richer and more numerous at the Cerrado. We did not find any consistent relationship between functional diversity and forest conversion beyond the changes in species diversity. Although landscape changes were more recent at the Cerrado, the colonization of the new habitat by native species already adapted to open habitats lessens the functional loss in this biome. This indicates that habitat change's effects on trait diversity depend on the regional species pool rather than on time since land conversion.Forest conversion effects were primarily due to internal filtering. The effects of external filtering only appear at the intraspecific variance level, with contrasting differences between the Cerrado, where traits related to relocation behavior and size are selected, and the Atlantic Forest, where selection operates for traits related to relocation behavior and flight. These results evidence the importance of considering individual variance to address the responses of dung beetle communities to forest conversion.

Development and Application of Biopesticides for the Management of Disease Vectors and Pests of Public Health Importance

The development and practical use of natural products occurred in the late 1970s when a spore-forming bacterium producing enterotoxins was discovered. This organism was designated as Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. israelensis (Bti). By 1985, large quantities of Bti formulations were employed in mosquito and black fly control programs globally. As research efforts in this area continued, a second bacterium Bacillus sphaericus (Bsph) was isolated and found to be highly effective against most mosquito species. This entomopathogen found its way into mosquito control around 1997. Today, both these (Bti and Bsph) microbial control agents are produced by large-scale fermentation processes in many countries. Recent advances in formulation technology of both bacteria have increased their usefulness in vector control programs. Another soil bacterium known as Saccharopolyspora spinosa (Actinomycetes), was discovered, producing bioactive components known as spinosyn A and spinosyn D. Large-scale fermentation technology has been developed and the product known as spinosad was produced and developed in agriculture, and recently for use in public health. However, spinosad has not been used to any great extent in public health as yet. All three microbial control agents have a good margin of safety for mammals, birds, and wildlife and are environmentally friendly. Considerable efforts were directed toward developing plant extracts for vector control, especially mosquitoes. In this context, plant-based extracts were formulated for the control of larval and adult mosquitoes. Some of the plant parts were used in manufacturing mosquito coils which number into the billions on a worldwide basis; however, only a small proportion of coils are manufactured with plant-derived products. A major area for the development of plant-based products is the use of plant essential oils which are formulated in various ways for personal protection from the attack of hematophagous insects. A number of such insect-repellent products are commercialized in many countries. The public has the perception that plant-based and other natural products are environmentally friendly and safer to use for vector control or apply to human skin as personal protectants than synthetic chemicals. In this paper, we will dwell upon the research and development efforts leading to the development, production, and application of microbial control agents, and phytochemicals for the control of adult and preimaginal stages of disease vectors, as well as the development and use of plant essential oils for personal protection from anthropophilic insects.

Planning Queen Elizabeth II’s Visit to Bondi Beach in 1954

Planning Queen Elizabeth II’s Visit to Bondi Beach in 1954

Effects of Piper nigrum L. Fruit Essential Oil Toxicity against Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae).

The efficacy of Piper nigrum L. fruit essential oil (EO) against Stomoxys calcitrans (stable fly), a blood-feeding fly distributed worldwide, was investigated. This study aimed to evaluate the insecticidal activity of EO based on contact and fumigant toxicity tests. Chemical analysis of the EO using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed that sabinene (24.41%), limonene (23.80%), β-caryophyllene (18.52%), and α-pinene (10.59%) were the major components. The results demonstrated that fly mortality increased with increasing EO concentration and time during the first 24 h of exposure. The median lethal dose was 78.37 µg/fly for contact toxicity, while the 90% lethal dose was 556.28 µg/fly. The median lethal concentration during fumigant toxicity testing was 13.72 mg/L air, and the 90% lethal concentration was 45.63 mg/L air. Our findings suggested that essential oil extracted from P. nigrum fruit could be a potential natural insecticidal agent for control of stable fly. To examine the insecticidal properties of P. nigrum fruit EO, further field trials and investigation into the efficacy of nano-formulations are required.

Integrated control of white fly (Aleurolobus barodensis) of sugarcane at its grand growth stage: A sustainable approach

White fly and other sucking insect pests are considered the minor pests of sugarcane in Punjab-Pakistan. But in the last few years, the white fly of sugarcane has become a major trouble for the sugarcane growers to handle and for sugar industries to extract proper sugar. A field trial was conducted at the seed farm of Kashmir Sugar Mills (Lat. 30.9370, Long. 72.1105). Treatments were comprised of crysopera eggs cards and insecticide(s). The insecticide(s) was sprayed with tractor mounted Jecto sprayer at the grand growth stage of autumn planted sugarcane (8th-month-old crop). Pre and post-spray population counts of whitefly were recorded. The results were compared with the control with a curved polar bar chart in R using the 'ggplot2' package. It was observed that drenching of chlorantraniloprole @ 250 ml/ha made an excellent control (~88%) and 24.2% over the control treatment. The 2nd most efficient control (86%) (22.7% over control) was recorded in a blend of pyriproxyfen + bifenthrin @ 1250 ml + 1000 ml/ha, respectively than the individual use of said insecticide (61% and 69%, respectively). Very hot and dry weather in the month of May in plains of Punjab Province-Pakistan did not support the Lab. reared crysoperla eggs cards @ 15000/ha in the field. But a large number of natural bio control agents worked well and surpassed some treatments in % mortality of whitefly

Synthesis of Phthalimide Derivatives and Their Insecticidal Activity against Caribbean Fruit Fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Loew).

In this study, thirteen phthalimide derivatives were designed and synthesized. All synthesized compounds were evaluated to determine their potential for inhibitory activities against females of the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae). These efforts led to the discovery of three compounds 4a, 4c, and 4d with potent insecticidal activity (LD50 range from 0.70 to 1.91 μg/fly). Among these compounds, 4a exhibited the highest inhibitory potency with 0.70 μg/fly. In addition, in silico models indicated that compound 4a is less toxic than phthalimide and other precursors. Therefore, our results suggest that 4a has strong potential as a candidate component for developing a novel environmentally friendly insecticide for control of pest fruit flies.

Study on the insecticidal activity of entomopathogenic fungi for the control of the fruit fly (Anastrepha obliqua), the main pest in mango crop in Colombia

The aim of this study was to evaluate and select entomopathogenic fungi that produces insecticidal compounds for the control of adults of Anastrepha obliqua Macquart (Diptera: tephritidae) that are the main pest of mango (Mangifera indica L. Bark) in Colombia. Nine entomopathogenic fungi isolates were evaluated, five belonging to the genus Metarhizium and four belonging to the genus Beauveria. One strain of the species Metarhizium robertsii with insecticidal activity was selected. By column fractionation, an active fraction was obtained, which caused mortalities higher than 90% after 48 h of exposure. Through HPLC it was determined that the active fraction is composed of more than 22 metabolites. Identification of the metabolites by UHPLC MS/MS revealed the presence of destruxin in E, D, A and B groups (destruxin E-diol, destruxin D, destruxin D1, destruxin D2, destruxin A2, destruxin A, destruxin A3, dihydrodestruxin A, desmB, destruxin B2, destruxin B and destruxin B1). The evaluation of the insecticidal capacity of the organic fractions obtained by HPLC indicated that the extract obtained from the isolate M. robertsii had a compound with high activity on adults of A. obliqua (destruxin A) causing massive mortality of up to 100%, after 48 h of the treatment administration. Furthermore, two other compounds with medium activity were found (destruxin A2 and destruxin B), showing mortalities between 60.0 and 81.3%, respectively. The extract of the isolate MT008 of M. robertsii showed higher insecticidal activity and a potential source for the control of A. obliqua

In vitro efficacy of essential oils against Haematobia irritans

The horn fly (Haematobia irritans) infestation in the cattle in Brazil leads to significant economic damage for livestock. The efficacy of many essential oils has been demonstrated in the control of veterinary ectoparasites. This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro efficacy of four essential oils to adult horn fly control. The essential oil from Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze (Lamiaceae) was extracted by hydro-distillation, while that the water steam distillation method was used to extract the essential oils from Varronia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem. &amp; Schult. (Boraginaceae), Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B.L. Burtt &amp; R.M. Sm. (Zingiberaceae) and Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae). Afterwards, all the essential oils were analyzed by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC?MS) and Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) for determination of their chemical composition. The bioassays in vitro were performed according to the impregnated filter paper methodology. All the essential oils evaluated in this study exhibited efficacy in vitro against H. irritans. The highest mortality of H. irritans was determined by essential oils from A. zerumbet (100%) and M. suaveolens (96.2%) at 50 mg mL-1. In concentration of 100 mg mL-1 V. curassavica and P. guajava essential oils caused the mortality of 99.2% and 82.8%, respectively. The A. zerumbet, M. suaveolens, V. curassavica and P. guajava essential oils showed in vitro efficacy against H. irritans. Further studies with associations and nanoemultions are necessary to increase the efficacy and stability of these essential oils on field conditions.

Selection for, and characterization of, fluralaner resistance in the house fly, Musca domestica

House flies, Musca domestica (L), are the mechanical vector of >100 human and animal pathogens, including those that are antibiotic-resistant. Given that house flies are associated closely with human and livestock activity, they present medical and veterinary health concerns. Although there are numerous strategies for control of house fly populations, chemical control has been favored in many facilities. Products with pyrethroid active ingredients have been used predominantly for >35 years in space sprays. As a result, strong selection for pyrethroid resistance has led to reduced control of many populations. Reliance on a limited number of insecticides for decades has created fly control problems necessitating the discovery and formulation of new control chemistries.Fluralaner is a relatively new insecticide and acaricide (first reported in 2010), belonging to the isoxazoline class. These insecticides target the glutamate- and gamma-aminobutyric acid-gated (GABA) chloride channels, which is a different mode of action from other insecticides used against house flies. Although is it not currently registered for house fly control in the United States, previous work has shown that fluralaner is highly toxic to house flies and that there was limited cross-resistance found in laboratory strains having high levels of resistance to other insecticides.Herein, we characterized the time and age dependency of fluralaner toxicity, detected cross-resistance in populations from across the United States, and selected a highly resistant (>11,000-fold) house fly strain. We found that the fluralaner LD50 of 18–24 h old flies was 2-fold higher than for 5–6 d old flies. This appears to be due to more rapid penetration of fluralaner into the 5–6 d old flies. Fluralaner resistance was inherited as an intermediate to incompletely dominant trait and was mapped to chromosomes 5 and 3. Resistance could be suppressed to 7-fold with piperonyl butoxide, suggesting that cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated detoxification was a major mechanism of resistance. Decreased penetration was also demonstrated as a mechanism of resistance. The utility of fluralaner for house fly control is discussed.

Field evaluation of glutathione and glutamic acid as host marking pheromones for control of Tephritid fruit flies in a mango orchard in Kenya.

Tephritid fruit flies are a major constraint to the global production of horticultural crops. In Africa, an array of native and alien invasive fruit fly species represents a key challenge to the horticultural industry. In an effort to develop a safer management tool for these pests, we previously identified glutathione (GSH) and glutamic acid (GA), as the host marking pheromones (HMPs) of Ceratitis cosyra and Ceratitis rosa, respectively. Here, we report on the effectiveness of these compounds (GSH and GA) in reducing natural fruit fly population infestations in mango orchards. Mango trees at two different agroecological zones in Kenya were sprayed with HMPs, and the fruits sampled periodically and assessed for fruit fly emergence. Fruit fly emergence data were compared to two controls, the positive control using spot spraying of food bait (SS), and the negative control using water (W). The two HMPs and SS substantially decreased fruit fly emergence from the sampled mangoes. GSH and GA treated mangoes showed reduced C. cosyra and C. rosa infestation by ~70-75% relative to control (W), and with variation noted in the pheromone applied and the recovered fruit fly species. The adult emergence in pheromone-treated plants compared favorably with the positive control SS. However, the HMPs had little impact on reducing Bactrocera dorsalis infestation of mangoes. The decrease in fruit fly emergence in sampled mango fruits from HMP treated trees corroborate previous laboratory results and support the prospect of using HMPs in the management of African fruit fly species. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Stocker Steer Gains and Fly Numbers as Impacted by Burn Date and Type of Mineral on Tallgrass Native Range – Year 4

This study aims to evaluate effectiveness of two operational management systems for steer gains and fly control. The first strategy evaluated was pasture burn date of March (MAR) or April (APR). The second management strategy was free-choice mineral with spices (SPICE) or without spices (CON). Eight pastures (n = 281 steers; initial weight 566 lb) were used in a 2 × 2 factorial treatment structure. Steers were weighed individually, randomly assigned to treatment, and grazed for 89 days. Weekly, 33% of steers were photographed to count flies and evaluated for hair coat score. Steers that grazed pastures that were burned in March had a greater average daily gain than those grazing pastures that were burned in April and resulted in nearly 30 pounds more gain per calf during the grazing season. Steers that consumed the mineral that contained the spices/essential oils had a 0.10 pound per day advantage as compared to steers on control mineral. There was an interaction between pasture burn date and mineral type where steers gained the most on March burned pastures (with no difference in mineral type), had the second greatest gains on the April burned pastures with Spice mineral, and had the lowest gains on the April burned pastures with Control mineral. Weather plays a very important role in cattle performance following a complete pasture burn, and in a year with excessive spring moisture and extreme drought beginning in June, a March burn was the better management practice.

Effectiveness of Four Integrated Pest Management Approaches in the Control of Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Mango Agro-Ecosystems in the South-Sudanian Zone of Burkina Faso

Effectiveness of Four Integrated Pest Management Approaches in the Control of Fruit Flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Mango Agro-Ecosystems in the South-Sudanian Zone of Burkina Faso

Field evaluation of insecticides for control of picture-winged flies infesting Florida sweet corn, 2023

Field evaluation of insecticides for control of picture-winged flies infesting Florida sweet corn, 2023

Evaluation in vitro of the virulence of two entomopathogenic heterorhabditid nematodes in the control of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) larvae in byproducts of the sugar and alcohol industry.

Stomoxys calcitrans causes losses to livestock, mainly to cattle. This study aimed to determine the pathogenic potential of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora HP88 and H. baujardi LPP7 against S. calcitrans larvae after being exposed to byproducts of the sugar and alcohol industry. The efficacy of EPNs on stable fly larvae was evaluated in bioassays with vinasse at three temperatures (16, 25 and 35 °C) and concentrations (0, 50 and 100%), as well as in relation to larva age (4, 6 and 8 days) in filter cake and EPNs concentration (100, 300 and 500 IJs/larva) in sugarcane bagasse. H. bacteriophora showed higher efficacy than H. baujardi at all temperatures. Vinasse did not have a negative effect on the virulence of H. bacteriophora. The age of fly larvae did not affect the mortality rates caused by the EPNs. In bagasse, H. bacteriophora presented higher mortality rates than the control group. It is concluded that EPNs can be a potential component in integrated strategies of stable fly control and outbreak prevention in areas of sugar and alcohol production.

Development and characterization of microsatellite markers for the tsetse species Glossina brevipalpis and preliminary population genetics analyses.

Tsetse flies, the vectors of African trypanosomes are of key medical and economic importance and one of the constraints for the development of Africa. Tsetse fly control is one of the most effective and sustainable strategies used for controlling the disease. Knowledge about population structure and level of gene flow between neighbouring populations of the target vector is of high importance to develop appropriate strategies for implementing effective management programmes. Microsatellites are commonly used to identify population structure and assess dispersal of the target populations and have been developed for several tsetse species but were lacking for Glossina brevipalpis. In this study, we screened the genome of G. brevipalpis to search for suitable microsatellite markers and nine were found to be efficient enough to distinguish between different tsetse populations. The availability of these novel microsatellite loci will help to better understand the population biology of G. brevipalpis and to assess the level of gene flow between different populations. Such information will help with the development of appropriate strategies to implement the sterile insect technique (SIT) in the framework of an area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) approach to manage tsetse populations and ultimately address the trypanosomoses problem in these targeted areas.

Transcriptome-Based Selection and Validation of Reference Genes for Gene Expression in Goji Fruit Fly (Neoceratitis asiatica Becker) under Developmental Stages and Five Abiotic Stresses.

Goji fruit fly, Neoceratitis asiatica, is a major pest on the well-known medicinal plant Lycium barbarum. Dissecting molecular mechanisms of infestation and host selection of N. asiatica will contribute to the determination of best management practices for pest fly control. Gene expression normalization by Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) requires the selection and validation of appropriate reference genes (RGs). Hence, 15 candidate RGs were selected from transcriptome data of N. asiatica. Their expression stability was evaluated with five algorithms (∆Ct, Normfinder, GeNorm, BestKeeper, and RefFinder) for sample types differing in the developmental stage, sex, tissue type, and in response to five different abiotic stresses. Our results indicated that the RGs β-Actin + GST for sex, RPL32 + EF1α for tissue type, RPS13+ EF1α for developmental stages along with odor stimulation, color induction, and starvation-refeeding stresses, EF1α + GAPDH under insecticide stress, RPS13 + RPS18 under temperature stress, respectively, were selected as the most suitable RGs for qPCR normalization. Overall, RPS18 and EF1α were the two most stable RGs in all conditions, while RPS15 and EF1β were the least stable RGs. The corresponding suitable RGs and one unstable RG were used to normalize a target odorant-binding protein OBP56a gene in male and female antennae, different tissues, and under odor stimulation. The results of OBP56a expression were consistent with transcriptome data. Our study is the first research on the most stable RGs selection in N. asiatica, which will facilitate further studies on the mechanisms of host selection and insecticide resistance in N. asiatica.

Habronemiasis (Equine Summer Sore) in an 8-year-old Arab Horse

Introduction: Habronemiasis, equine summer sore, is caused by habronema larvae, commonly in tropical and subtropical climates. House flies, face flies, and stable flies transmit the pathogenic nematode larvae. Cutaneous habronemiais is the most common form of habronemiasis in horses. Cutaneous habronemiais is associated with the deposition of larvae in areas where they cannot complete their life cycle. Deposition of larvae is related to local hypersensitivity. Habronema larvae could cause preocular infectious resulting in conjunctivitis, blepharitis, or dermatitis. Case report: An eight-year-old male Arabian horse was referred to the Large Animal Medicine Unit, Veterinary Clinical hospital, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran, with a history of wounds on the preocular region and hind limbs. The right eye's ocular examination revealed abundant mucopurulent discharge, blepharospasm, and chemosis. The granulomatous tumor had a diameter of 1.8 cm and was evident on the palpebral conjunctiva of the medial canthus. The skin lesion was identified as habronemiasis based on the history, clinical symptoms. Treatment includes prednisolone tab with reducing dosage for 30 days, an oral dose of Ivermectin, topical oxytetracycline ointment for seven days, chloramphenicol and triamcinolone eye drop for seven days. The diagnosis was confirmed due to the positive reaction of the lesions to treatment protocol. Conclusion: Ocular habronemiasis is the common form of habronemiasis. Deposing of dead larva causes a hypersensitivity reaction. Treatments include corticosteroid to reduce inflammation-association tissue proliferation, antibiotic ointment for prevention of second bacterial infection, an antihistamine for the prevention of histamine-mediated pruritic and allergic conditions, and oral antihelminth for the killing of adult form in the stomach. The current study authors suggest fly control is essential in preventing habronemiasis.

Urban Onsite Sanitation Upgrades and Synanthropic Flies in Maputo, Mozambique: Effects on Enteric Pathogen Infection Risks.

Synanthropic filth flies transport enteric pathogens from feces to food, which upon consumption poses an infection risk. We evaluated the effect of an onsite sanitation intervention─including fly control measures─in Maputo, Mozambique, on the risk of infection from consuming fly-contaminated food. After enumerating flies at intervention and control sites, we cultured fecal indicator bacteria, quantified gene copies for 22 enteric pathogens via reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and developed quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) models to estimate annual risks of infection attributable to fly-contaminated foods. We found that the intervention reduced fly counts at latrine entrances by 69% (aRR = 0.31, [0.13, 0.75]) but not at food preparation areas (aRR = 0.92, [0.33, 2.6]). Half of (23/46) of individual flies were positive for culturable Escherichia coli, and we detected ≥1 pathogen gene from 45% (79/176) of flies, including enteropathogenic E. coli (37/176), adenovirus (25/176), Giardia spp. (13/176), and Trichuris trichiura (12/176). We detected ≥1 pathogen gene from half the flies caught in control (54%, 30/56) and intervention compounds (50%, 17/34) at baseline, which decreased 12 months post-intervention to 43% (23/53) at control compounds and 27% (9/33) for intervention compounds. These data indicate flies as a potentially important mechanical vector for enteric pathogen transmission in this setting. The intervention may have reduced the risk of fly-mediated enteric infection for some pathogens, but infrequent detection resulted in wide confidence intervals; we observed no apparent difference in infection risk between groups in a pooled estimate of all pathogens assessed (aRR = 0.84, [0.61, 1.2]). The infection risks posed by flies suggest that the design of sanitation systems and service delivery should include fly control measures to prevent enteric pathogen transmission.