Contour Farming Research Articles

Owner or tenant: Who adopts better soil conservation practices?

Land tenure security is widely considered to be a fundamental factor in motivating farmers to adopt sustainable land management practices. This study aims to establish whether it is true that owner-operators adopt more effective soil conservation measures than tenant-operators, and whether well-designed agro-environmental instruments can provide sufficiently strong motivation to compensate for the differences between these two groups.An analysis of the level of adoption of four types of erosion control measures on 263 blocks of arable land endangered by water erosion in the Czech Republic has proved that all measures were adopted by owners significantly more frequently than by tenants. Compared to tenants, owners applied wide-row crops in crop rotation schemes 2.4 times less frequently in the last 5 years, while they applied soil-improving crops 1.9 times more frequently. Contour farming was adopted 1.8 times more often by owners, and the slope length in production blocks farmed by owners was on an average 2.4 times shorter than in blocks farmed by tenants. However, the study has also shown that, in cases where conservation measures are supported by incentives based on Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAEC) standards cross compliance, the differences in the approach to soil conservation between owners and tenants were minimized or eliminated, due to the adoption of responsible practices by tenants. The study has proved that a well-designed system of environmentally determined subsidies can compensate otherwise substantial differences in the attitude of owners and tenants towards soil conservation.

Modelling the effect of support practices (P-factor) on the reduction of soil erosion by water at European scale

The USLE/RUSLE support practice factor (P-factor) is rarely taken into account in soil erosion risk modelling at sub-continental scale, as it is difficult to estimate for large areas. This study attempts to model the P-factor in the European Union. For this, it considers the latest policy developments in the Common Agricultural Policy, and applies the rules set by Member States for contour farming over a certain slope. The impact of stone walls and grass margins is also modelled using the more than 226,000 observations from the Land use/cover area frame statistical survey (LUCAS) carried out in 2012 in the European Union. The mean P-factor considering contour farming, stone walls and grass margins in the European Union is estimated at 0.9702. The support practices accounted for in the P-factor reduce the risk of soil erosion by 3%, with grass margins having the largest impact (57% of the total erosion risk reduction) followed by stone walls (38%). Contour farming contributes very little to the P-factor given its limited application; it is only used as a support practice in eight countries and only on very steep slopes. Support practices have the highest impact in Malta, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, Belgium, The Netherlands and United Kingdom where they reduce soil erosion risk by at least 5%. The P-factor modelling tool can potentially be used by policy makers to run soil-erosion risk scenarios for a wider application of contour farming in areas with slope gradients less than 10%, maintaining stone walls and increasing the number of grass margins under the forthcoming reform of the Common Agricultural Policy.

English

Soil erosion is one of the challenges of Nigerian agriculture. The present study therefore aimed at surveying prevailing types of soil erosion in Central Senatorial District (Tsafe, Gusau, Bungudu and Maru Local Governments) of Zamfara State-Nigeria, their causes, effects and some measures adopted by farmers in soil and water conservation. Three district each from Gusau and Maru local governments were randomly selected and stratified random sampling technique was employed in selecting seven villages from the districts of Gusau and nine from that of Maru. Structured questionnaires were administered to 200 farmers and the data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Result showed majority of the farmers sampled were having ages of ≥ 60 years with Qur’anic education and farm size of 1 to 5 ha mostly acquired by inheritance. Mixed cropping is widely practiced with rill erosion as the prevalent type having moderate severity on their farms detected through decline in productivity, occurrence of rills and gullies. Continuous and clean cultivation, topography, soil and rainfall characteristics were among the causes of erosion in the study area with damages to include loss of productive soil, silting, drifting and land fragmentation. The conservation practices including manure application, cover cropping, drainages, contour farming and minimum or zero tillage are being adopted by the farmers for sustainable crop production.   Key words: Soil erosion, Zamfara central senatorial district, sustainable crop production, soil and water conservation. &nbsp

Climate change impact on design and costing of soil and water conservation structures in watersheds

A study was carried out to determine the effect of cli-mate change on design rainfall and its effect on design and costing of soil and water conservation structures in watersheds. For this study, the micro watershed located at Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Research Centre, Research farm, Vasad was selected and rainfall data from 1957 to 2012 was used. The analysis showed that as a result of climate change, there is significant in-crease in number of extremely heavy rainfall days as well as rainfall amount. The design rainfall of various soil and water conservation structures has increased by 11%, 30% and 38% for design of staggered con-tour trenches, contour bunds and check dams respec-tively. The cost of construction of staggered contour trenches, contour bunds and check dams in water-sheds has increased by 26%, 28% and 12% respec-tively. This study reveals that, there is a need to account for design and costing of soil and water con-servation structures in the light of the climate change and a relook into the watershed programmes of the central Gujarat region of India.

A modeling approach to evaluate the impact of conservation practices on water and sediment yield in Sasumua Watershed, Kenya

Degradation of agricultural watersheds often reduces their capacity to provide ecosystem services such as sediment retention, flow regulation, and water quality improvement. Soil and water conservation practices can be used to enhance the capacity of watersheds to produce these services. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of agricultural conservation practices on water and sediment yield using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The study area was Sasumua Watershed (107 km2 [43 mi2]), where land degradation has affected watershed9s capacity to regulate flow and maintain water quality. The model was calibrated and validated for streamflow at the watershed outlet. Data on annual average erosion rates for the area was used to constrain soil erodibility factor (KUSLE) and practice erodibility factor (PUSLE) parameters during sediment calibration while measured three month sediment concentration data was used for validation. Model performance was assessed using the coefficient of determination (r2), Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (ENS) and percent bias (PBIAS). Results gave monthly streamflow r2 values of 0.80 and 0.85, ENS values of 0.74 and 0.81, and PBIAS values of ±5% and ±6% during the calibration and validation. The model also satisfactorily simulated daily sediment concentrations with an r2 value of 0.54. However, ENS and PBIAS values were low, which was attributed to the short duration of measurement. The validated model was used to simulate sediment yield for the period 1970 to 2010. Mean annual watershed sediment yield was 40,934 t y−1 (90,243,096 lb yr−1). The impacts of filter strips, contour farming, parallel terraces, grassed waterways, and their combinations on water and sediment yield were simulated by adjusting relevant model parameters. The effectiveness of filter strips increased nonlinearly with width being optimum at 30 m (98.4 ft). A combination of 30 m (98.4 ft) wide filter strips and grassed waterways reduced sediment yield by 80%; parallel terraces, 10 m (32.8 ft) filter strips, and grassed waterways reduced sediment yield by 75%; 10 m (32.8 ft) filter strips and grassed waterways reduced yield by 73%; contour farming and grassed waterways reduced yield by 66%; and grassed waterways reduced yield by only 54%. Parallel terraces reduced surface runoff by 20% and increased base flow by 12%, while contour farming reduced surface runoff by 12% and increased base flow by 6.5%. Implementation of conservation practices can reduce sediment yield and increase water yield marginally. The results give an insight into the implications of the present land use management practices and can be used to devise ecologically sound watershed management and development plans.

Dry land techniques for vegetable production in India-A review

Dry farming is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall less than 750 mm. Dry land farming techniques includes Water conservation, increase Water absorption, reducing the loss of soil moisture, bunding and terracing, contour bunding, mulching, intercropping, precision agriculture, use of drip irrigation facilities and use of growth regulators and chemicals. Choice of varieties is important. Varieties which have proven excellent in irrigated areas are generally unsuited for dry land conditions. Many attempts at dry land farming have failed, largely due to lack of recognition of the requirements for the variety selection.Variety requirements for dry farming are short-stemmed varieties with limited leaf surface minimize transpiration, deep, prolific root systems enhance moisture utilization and quick-maturing varieties are important in order that the crop may develop prior to the hottest and driest part of the year and mature before moisture supplies are completely exhausted. Even after utilizing all the available water resources, about 50% of the cultivable area will still depends on rains. Therefore, the agricultural scientists, policy makers and farmers should appropriately realize the magnitude of role that rainfed agriculture or dryland farming can play. Vegetable cultivation under rainfed condition is not much popular while comparing to other systems of cultivation. However, it solves the problem of rural poverty and malnutrition. Therefore, much concentration should be given for dry land rainfed vegetable farming by efficient adoption of techniques.

Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Coping Strategies at Malindza, a Rural Semi-Arid Area in Swaziland

The objective of the study was to assess the impacts of climate change faced by rural households in the lowveld of Swaziland, using Malindza as a case study area, and further identify adaptation and coping strategies employed by households. A questionnaire was developed and used to conduct interviews from 160 households randomly selected in four rural communities of the study area. Data were analysed with SPSS software, and reported in forms of tables and figures. More or less all the respondents (99%) were aware of climate change and climate change variability, Sources of information included radios (92.5%), television (5.6%) and agricultural extension officers (2%). The information was however considered inadequate and of short term remedy as it was in the form of daily weather forecast. The perceived effects of climate change included crop failure (99%), loss of livestock (99%) and drying of surface water (99%). Only 9% of the households harvested enough maize to last for a year, and the rest (91%) had to rely on buying maize, exchanging it for labour or receiving food aid. The climate change adaptation strategies practiced included contour ploughing (49%), use of organic fertilisers (29%) and crop rotation (20%). Thirty two percent of the households planted hybrid maize seeds and 15% planted open pollinated maize seeds. Another 26% planted both hybrid maize and open pollinated maize seeds. On the other hand, coping strategies practiced included selling or consuming small livestock and chicken (97%), consuming maize left for seeds (93%) and reducing food intake (23%). It was clear that the effects of climate change in rural areas were severe and needed to be addressed before critical damages like loss of human life manifest. The government should ensure that farmer’s knowledge on climate change and variability is increased through education to improve their adaptive capacity.

Adoption of recommended soil and water conservation practices among the beneficiaries of Sujala Watershed Project in Northern Karnataka

The study conducted during 2012-2013 in Haveri and Dharwad districts of Karnataka state where in Sujala watershed project was implemented during 2001 to 2007. The distribution of beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries in adoption of recommended soil and water conservation practices shows that highest per cent of beneficiaries (86.25%) as compared to non-beneficiaries (57.50%) adopted shrub check. More number of beneficiaries adopted water ways (65.00%), boulder bund (62.50%), dugout or water recharge pit (58.75%) and vegetative bunds (52.50%) as compared to non-beneficiaries (23.75%, 43.75%, 27.50% and 26.25%, respectively). Around one-third of beneficiaries adopted sunken ponds (38.75%) and farm pond (30.00%) as compared to nonbeneficiaries (13.75% and 16.25%, respectively). Adoption of contour bund, rubble check, contour strip and staggered contour trench was noticed with very less per cent of beneficiaries (12.50%, 8.75%, 6.25% and 6.25%, respectively). But none of the non-beneficiaries adopted contour bund, contour strip and staggered contour trench. The overall distribution reveals that, high per cent of beneficiaries were noticed in high and medium adoption category (43.75% and 40.00%, respectively) as compared to non-beneficiaries (20.00% and 27.50%, respectively). Low adoption category was observed with more number of non-beneficiaries (52.50%) as compared to beneficiaries (16.25%). The extent of adoption amongst beneficiaries was positively correlated with land holding, extension participation, annual family income, awareness of soil erosion problems and accessibility to farm implements and the age was noticed to be negatively correlated. And amongst non-beneficiaries only annual family income was positively correlated with adoption of soil and water conservation practices Whereas, the education, farming system, family type, perception of usefulness of practices, achievement motivation and risk orientation were not related with the adoption of soil and water conservation practices among both beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries.

Perception and constraints in adoption of soil and water conservation practices among the Sujala Watershed Project beneficiaries of Northern Karnataka

The study was conducted during 2012-2013 in the Sujala Watershed Project implemented in Haveri and Dharwad districts of Karnataka state. Sample consisting of 80 beneficiaries of project area and 80 nonbeneficiaries were personally interviewed through well structured interview schedule. The results revealed that high perception about the usefulness and appropriateness was noticed with more number of beneficiaries (56.25%) as compared to non-beneficiaries (40.00%). The usefulness of nala bund, contour bund and contour strip was highly perceived by beneficiaries (97.50%, 85.00% and 77.50%, respectively) than non-beneficiaries (81.25%, 58.75% and 61.25%, respectively). Similarly, appropriateness of constructing check dam, nala bund and dugout was highly perceived by beneficiaries (91.25%, 85.00% and 82.50%, respectively) as compared to non-beneficiaries (42.50%, 58.75% and 57.50%, respectively). Non-availability of suitable implements was expressed by 63.75 per cent non-beneficiaries and 48.75 per cent beneficiaries. Similarly, lack of technical guidance and training was observed with more of non-beneficiaries (58.75% and 56.25%, respectively) as compared to beneficiaries (35.00% and 31.25%, respectively).

Applicability of Climate Analogues for Climate Change Adaptation Planning in Bugabira Commune of Burundi

<p>Climate analogue analysis is an approach that has been proposed in climate change impact studies to serve as a complement to climate impact projections. In this approach, a location whose present climate is similar to the projected climate of another location is investigated to learn about potential impacts of climate change, based on a real-life example. Possible response options to negative impacts may also be identified for climate change adaptation planning. The current study used the climatic distance method to determine analogue locations for Bugabira Commune in Burundi. The climatic distance was calculated from temperature and rainfall projections produced by three climate models, driven by two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios and assessed for three future time periods. Information relevant to farming systems and adaptation was then obtained through interviews that involved 450 household heads living in Bugabira (target) and Bubanza (analogue) communes in Burundi. By comparing the two farming systems using results from the analysis of the questionnaires, similarities and differences were determined. The analysis showed that crop and animal types, as well as various land management practices, were similar in both locations. Slight differences in land management strategies could only be noticed in the adoption rates of various technologies. Fifty-nine percent and 19% of farmers at the target and analogue locations, respectively, practiced contour ploughing, while 68% and 43% of farmers at the target and analogue locations practiced crop rotation. Eighty-seven percent of farmers at the target site and 58% of farmers in the analogue location applied manure to their farms. The differences in adoption rates could not be attributed to climatic or non-climatic factors. Based on the results, the study concluded that the analogues approach has low potential for the farmers of Bugabira to learn lessons for adaptation planning.</p>

Effects of crop rotation and rainfall on water erosion on a gentle slope in the hilly loess area, China

Cultivation on steep land has long been blamed as a major contributor of water erosion in many fragile regions of the world. Soil and water loss from gentle slopes, however, are always subjectively considered less important and are even neglected in practice. In this study, 21 plots including seven crop-rotation types (CRTs) under three different slight gradients (10°, 15°, 20°), were established in Dingxi, a typical semiarid hilly loess area in China. Eight consecutive years of erosion data under different gentle-slope cultivation conditions were compared and analyzed. The most interesting and key finding is that water erosion remained far higher on slopes with gradients of less than 20° than the tolerable criterion, even when some CRT measures and field treatments (e.g., contour cultivation, stiletto, minimum tillage, and crop-shrub intercropping) were implemented. Newfield techniques targeting erosion control on gentle slopes should be developed. Secondly, compared with other crop species, potato cultivation under sloping conditions was confirmed to cause the highest soil and water loss and should be strictly forbidden at large scales. Being a major source of income for local farmers, potato plantation under terracing conditions, rather than on slopes, is strongly recommended as the first choice for achieving the double advantages of erosion control and farmer income. Thirdly, water erosion on gentle slopes was reduced significantly when different CRTs coupled with land-closure treatments (e.g., farmland abandonment, leaving artificial grassland under natural succession, and consecutive fallows) were conducted simultaneously. This result confirms that these measures are effective for conserving soil and water, and are feasible in practice. Finally, water erosion depended significantly on the timing and proportion of rainstorms in certain periods. The sensitivity of water erosion to natural rainfall, however, was also dependent on the specific surface status. In summary, a higher occurrence of rainstorms coupled with crops that have poor resistance to erosion (e.g., potato, flax, and wheat) and up–down cultivation will certainly accelerate runoff and erosion on slopes, whereas natural succession without human disturbance or appropriate CRTs with contour farming practices can markedly reduce water erosion rates.

전문가 델파이 방법을 이용한 농업 비점오염 저감 기술의 현장 적용성 조사

BACKGROUND: It is essential to prioritize the exact and clear understanding of agricultural nonpoint source pollution (NPS) controls. The realistic policies and systems should also be developed based on this understanding. Therefore, this study aimed to present agricultural Best Management Practices (BMPs) applicable for the fields based on the Delphi survey result. METHODS AND RESULTS: This study deduced the evaluation items to assess each BMP for agricultural NPS control and conducted the surveying using the Delphi method based on agricultural BMP experts. In addition, its on-the-spot application were evaluated. Considering its importance, technical, social and economic proprieties showed that political support was ranked first and followed by cost investment, labor investment, reduction effect and resident participation. The survey findings by agricultural BMP experts showed the good performance of on-the-spot application can be achieved from fertilization by soil testing, residue and green manure application and contour plowing which are applicable within a field. Agricultural BMPs, highly applicable for the fields, were the countermeasures that farmers who are the principal bodies of agricultural NPS control could be participated directly. CONCLUSION: The active participation of farmers is essential for effective control of agricultural NPS. It is necessary to establish various incentive systems.

Using every last drop: rainwater harvesting and utilization in Gansu Province, China

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has been widely practised in China for centuries. The modernization and rapid spread of RWH and accompanied low-cost greenhouse and low rate irrigation (LORI) techniques since the late 1980s has helped to address water shortages and lift millions of families out of poverty in semi-arid provinces such as Gansu. The construction of terraces, contour bunds and micro-catchments has also contributed significantly to soil and water conservation, revegetation and ecological restoration of previously degraded land. This article provides an update on developments relating to a major RWH programme in Gansu Province, China, and follows three previous contributions published by the authors in Waterlines in 1995, 2000, and 2006. It also provides an overview of the book Every Last Drop: Rainwater Harvesting and Sustainable Technologies in Rural China, published by Practical Action in 2012

SWAT modeling of best management practices for Chungju dam watershed in South Korea under future climate change scenarios

Suitable and practicable best management practices (BMPs) need to be developed due to steadily increasing agricultural land development, intensified fertilization practices, and increased soil erosion and pollutant loads from cultivated areas. The soil and water assessment tool model was used to evaluate the present and future proper BMP scenarios for Chungju dam watershed (6,642 km2) of South Korea, which includes rice paddy and upland crop areas. The present (1981–2010) and future (2040s and 2080s) BMPs of streambank stabilization, building recharge structures, conservation tillage, and terrace and contour farming were examined individually in terms of reducing nonpoint source pollution loads by applying MIROC3.2 HiRes A1B and B1 scenarios. Streambank stabilization achieved the highest reductions in sediment and T-N, and slope terracing was a highly effective BMP for sediment and T-P removal in both present and future climate conditions.

English

Sustainable agricultural practices require, among other factors, adoption of improved nutrient management techniques, pest mitigation technology and soil conservation measures. Such improved management practices can be tools for enhancing crop productivity. Data on micro-level farm management practices from developing countries is either scarce or unavailable, despite the importance of their policy implications with regard to resource allocation. The present study investigates adoption of some farm management practices and factors influencing the adoption behavior of farm households in three agrobiodiversity hotspots in India: Kundra block in the Koraput district of Odisha, Meenangadi panchayat in the Wayanad district of Kerala and Kolli Hills in the Namakkal district of Tamil Nadu. Information on farm management practices was collected from November 2011 to February 2012 from 3845 households, of which the data from 2726 farm households was used for analysis. The three most popular farm management practices adopted by farmers include: application of chemical fertilizers, farm yard manure and green manure for managing nutrients; application of chemical pesticides, inter-cropping and mixed cropping for mitigating pests; and contour bunds, grass bunds and trenches for soil conservation. A Negative Binomial count data regression model was used to estimate factors influencing decision-making by farmers on farm management practices. The regression results indicate that farmers who received information from agricultural extension are statistically significant and positively related to the adoption of farm management practices. Another key finding shows the negative relationship between cultivation of local varieties and adoption of farm management practices.

Perception of Farmers on Soil Erosion and Conservation Practices in Dejen District, Ethiopia

Soil erosion is one of the major causes of land degradation that causes low agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. Though, it is a natural process, its rate has increased significantly mainly by human activity. The study was conducted in Dejen district, in Northwestern Ethiopia to assess perception of farmers on soil erosion and conservation practices. In this study, both primary and secondary data collection techniques were used. These includes interviews, focus group discussions, field observations, and questionnaires were the source of this research. The sampling technique employed in this study were stratified, purposive and simple random were applied to select sample kebele and representative households heads. A sample of 250 heads of households were used to gain insight into soil erosion perceived by farmers and conservation practices in the study area. The finding of the study shows that almost all farmers of the study area had good perception on the causes, indicators and problems of soil erosion. The main causes of soil erosion perceived by farmers in the study area were high intensity of rainfall, continuous cultivation, topography and inappropriate soil conservation practices. The major soil conservation methods implemented by farmers in the study area were terracing, diversion ditches, and contour plowing and cut of drain. This research finding also concludes that the main constraints to apply soil conservations in Dejen district were mainly related to socioeconomic and biophysical factors such as uncontrolled (free) grazing, distance between homestead and farm land and farmers’ low level of the economic capacity.

Competency Improvement Needs of Farmers in Soil Erosion Prevention and Control for Enhancing Crop Production: Case Study of Kogi State, Nigeria

This study investigated the competency improvement needs of farmers in soil erosion prevention and control for enhancing crop production in Kogi state of Nigeria and was carried out between January and June, 2014. The study adopted descriptive survey research design and was guided by two research questions. The study found out that farmers needed improvement on 37 cultural practices as follows: 10 competencies in mulching, 12 in cover cropping, 8 in strip cropping, 7 in contour farming and 45 mechanical field practice as follows: 10 competencies in contour bonding, 11 in terracing, 12 in channeling and 11 in tunneling for success in soil erosion prevention and control. The study recommended the organization of rural based programmes for the training of farmers in the practice identified to enhance their competencies in soil erosion prevention and control for increased crop production.

Soil surface roughness change and its effect on runoff and erosion on the Loess Plateau of China

As an important parameter in the soil erosion model, soil surface roughness (SSR) is used to quantitatively describe the micro-relief on agricultural land. SSR has been extensively studied both experimentally and theoretically; however, no studies have focused on understanding SSR on the Loess Plateau of China. This study investigated changes in SSR for three different tillage practices on the Loess Plateau of China and the effects of SSR on runoff and erosion yield during simulated rainfall. The tillage practices used were zero tillage (ZT), shallow hoeing (SH) and contour ploughing (CP). Two rainfall intensities were applied, and three stages of water erosion processes (splash erosion (I), sheet erosion (II) and rill erosion (III)) were analyzed for each rainfall intensity. The chain method was used to measure changes in SSR both initially and after each stage of rainfall. A splash board was used to measure the splash erosion at stage I. Runoff and sediment data were collected continuously at 2-min intervals during rainfall erosion stages II and III. We found that SSR of the tilled surfaces ranged from 1.0% to 21.9% under the three tillage practices, and the order of the initial SSR for the three treatments was ZT<SH<CP. For the ZT treatment, SSR increased slightly from stage I to III, whereas for the SH and CP treatments, SSR decreased by 44.5% and 61.5% after the three water erosion stages, respectively, and the greatest reduction in SSR occurred in stage I. Regression analysis showed that the changes in SSR with increasing cumulative rainfall could be described by a power function (R 2>0.49) for the ZT, SH and CP treatments. The runoff initiation time was longer in the SH and CP treatments than in the ZT treatment. There were no significant differences in the total runoff yields among the ZT, SH and CP treatments. Sediment loss was significantly smaller (P<0.05) in the SH and CP treatments than in the ZT treatment.

RAIN FED FARMING AS A DEVELOPMENT OPTION FOR THE DRY ZONE

From about 1930's the development policy of Sri Lanka has been discouraging Chenafarming and promoting irrigation. The main argument against Chena is felling of forest toclear Chena plots, though in the case of Chena it is only contribution but in irrigation it isa total sacrifice.After many decades of irrigation development we are still without enough food, intendeddouble of cropping out of reach, fuelwood and timber becoming scarce and costly andimbalance between flood flow and base flow ever increasing.Historically, Chena farming has been at least at par with irrigation if not more important.Contrary to general opinion the British rulers gave due credit to it and declared 1897Wastelands Act to facilitate it. In 1930's they attempted stabilization of Chena farming byintroducing draught tillage as in Deccan Plateau. The experiment failed and the effort wasgiven up for good. Irrigation only was promoted thereafter. Even the Moneragala IRDPthat was specifically instituted to help the Chena farmer has spent only Rs 1.86 million onrainfed farming in comparison to Rs 57.2 million spent on irrigation, from 1984 to 1995.Despite falling out of favour with the Government rainfed farming continues on its ownstrength as the commonest farming practice in the country. As much as 33% of paddy landin the country is rainfed, more than half of it in the dry zone, recording a croppingintensity comparable to minor irrigation and producing 25% of national paddy output. Itaccounts for 80% of the country's nonrice food production. In some irrigation projects thesettlers live more on rainfed farming than irrigation. Rainfed sugar cane is doing better atPelwatte and Sevanagala compared to irrigated Hingurana and Kantalai.Inspired by the rainfed farming potential, studies conducted in southeast dry zone since1994 show that it is possible to improve on its merits and its demerits can be easilyovercome by application of appropriate and farmer adaptable technology. Following aresome of the technologies applied in farmers' fields with farmer participation.I. Construction of contour bunds with hillside ditches on contours traced by graduated tubelevel.2. Wind rowing of debris into contour bunds instead of burning.3. Erasing the fear the people had of Gliricidia as a soil degrading plant.4. Promotion of compost heap instead of pit. 5. Application ofP fertilizer to legumes.Results observed are;I. Soil fertility improved and soil conserved.2. Fodder, green manure, vegetable stakes, fuelwood etc from Gliricidia.3. Weed flora changed from difficult to manage graminae to easy to control broad leavedspecies.4. Need for ploughing reduced and manual weeding costs reduced.5. Crop yield increased. 6. Well water quality improved.7. Farmer confidence in rainfed farming improved.

Costs and benefits of erosion control measures in the UK

AbstractSoil erosion is a key threat to ecosystem services. This study assesses the cost‐effectiveness of erosion control measures based on an ecosystem services approach. The economic appraisal consists of an assessment (i.e. quantification and valuation) of the on‐site and off‐site impacts of soil erosion, and its mitigation, on ecosystem services. Many erosion control measures result in negative financial and economic returns. This explains why farmers are generally reluctant to implement erosion control measures without compensation. Based on the assessment described in this study, tramline management, mulching, buffer strips, high‐density planting and sediment traps are the most cost‐effective erosion control measures for agriculture in the UK. Contour ploughing also appears to be cost‐effective, but this measure is not appropriate in all circumstances and therefore cannot be widely promoted. However, actual cost‐effectiveness of erosion control measures will differ for local circumstances, and it is therefore advised that individual assessments are made at farm level or field level before recommendations are made to farmers.