Lithosphere Research Articles

High-Resolution Land Use Land Cover Dataset for Meteorological Modelling—Part 2: ECOCLIMAP-SG-ML an Ensemble Land Cover Map

While the surface of the Earth plays a key role in weather forecasting through its interaction with the atmosphere, in ensemble numerical weather predictions the uncertainty on the surface is only represented with perturbations in the parameterisations representing the surface processes. Data representing the surface, such as the land cover, are not perturbed. As fully data-driven forecasts without parameterisations are growing in importance, sampling the uncertainty on the land cover data brings a new way of making ensemble forecasts. Our work describes a method of generating ensemble land cover maps for numerical weather prediction. The target land cover map has the ECOCLIMAP-SG labels used in the SURFEX surface model and therefore is expected to have all relevant labels for surface-atmosphere interactions. The method translates the ESA WorldCover map to ECOCLIMAP-SG labels and resolution using auto-encoders. The land cover ensemble members are obtained by sampling the land cover probabilities in the output of the neural network. This paper builds upon the work done in a companion paper describing the high-resolution version of ECOCLIMAP-SG, called ECOCLIMAP-SG+, used for the training and evaluation of the neural network. The output map presented here, called ECOCLIMAP-SG-ML, improves upon the ECOCLIMAP-SG map in terms of resolution (from 300 m to 60 m), overall accuracy (from 0.41 to 0.63), and the ability to produce ensemble members.

Subductability of continental lithosphere

Multiple lines of evidence from geological and geophysical observations indicate the deep subduction of continental lithosphere; however, the potential and driving forces of (self-sustained) continental subduction remain unclear. Here, systematic thermal-petrological models were conducted to quantitatively evaluate the subductability of continental lithosphere by analyzing its density structure and slab-pull evolution during subduction. The results indicate that the metamorphic densification of deeply subducted continental lithosphere (upper, middle, lower crust and lithospheric mantle) could provide considerable driving force for continental deep subduction. The numerical models further indicate that, if a Phanerozoic or Proterozoic continental lithosphere is dragged to a large depth of >300 km, then the continental slab pull overcomes the overall resistance force. Consequently, the continental subduction occurs self-consistently without any drag from the preceding oceanic slab. For Archean continental lithosphere, it is more difficult for self-sustained subduction to occur, due to the highly depleted mantle composition. In addition, we also systematically quantified the effects of multiple factors, including the scraping of continental crust, subduction velocity, subduction angle, and variable bulk-rock compositions of continental crust. Finally, a representative case study of the Himalayan orogen revealed that the slab pull of presently subducting Indian continental lithosphere ranges from 13 TN/m to 29 TN/m, providing a major contribution for the ongoing India-Asia collision.

The research of thermal environment test methodology for the Mars probe product

Abstract In order to ensure the success of the Mars exploration mission, it is necessary to accurately simulate the unique environment on the surface of Mars in a ground test and verify the effectiveness of the thermal control measures of the Mars rover. This paper proposes a thermal balance test method that can simultaneously simulate environmental factors such as Martian surface gas atmosphere, wind speed, pressure, solar radiation, and atmospheric temperature. This proposed test method meets the thermal design verification requirements of component-level products. Compared with similar large-scale facilities, the test cost is low, and the implementation efficiency is high. Furthermore, the influence of the Martian wind field on the surface temperature distribution of the product under both the Martian day and night environment was investigated using the proposed test method. The research results show that although the atmospheric pressure on the surface of Mars is much lower than the surface of the Earth, the Martian wind will still form forced convection heat transfer on the surface of the probe and its auxiliary products, which will affect the heat distribution of the products. In the thermal control design of the products, it is necessary to consider the impact of all the above environmental factors and carry out corresponding comprehensive environmental test verification.

Using contrasts in horizontal P-wave reflectivity to map the base of the continental lithosphere: Results for the central and eastern U.S.

Vertical-incidence seismic reflection profiles generated from global phases for 16 earthquakes recorded by stations of the Transportable Array (TA) show distinctive patterns of P-wave reflectivity in the uppermost mantle beneath the central and eastern United States. The overall distribution of reflections identified objectively using the sign test statistic applied to bootstrapped stacks is consistent with a westward increase in depth of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB) from roughly 110 to 250 km that is marked within the lower lithosphere by piecewise continuous segments of elevated horizontal P-wave reflectivity. For some profiles, the onsets of zones of increased reflectivity closely match depths corresponding to the maximum negative S-wave velocity gradients found by surface-wave tomography, suggesting that P-wave reflectivity can be used to help characterize properties of the lower lithosphere. We suggest that the vertical change in horizontal reflectivity straddles the lithosphere-asthenosphere transition, encompassing a broad zone of layering caused by increased strain in the lower lithosphere as well as drag-induced flow in the asthenosphere. Some of the lines also show waveforms that fall within the depth range of arrivals identified as midlithospheric discontinuities (MLDs) in overlapping Sp receiver-function profiles. The reflection waveforms observed in the TA lines are mostly multicyclic with a mix of polarities indicating a layered transition, consistent with previous observations and model studies that show the breakup of single Sp waveforms into a series of less prominent, shorter-period P-wave reflections as the dominant frequency of incident energy is increased.

Construction of a ballistic model of the motion of uncontrolled cargo during its autonomous high-precision drop from a fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicle

The object of this study is the process related to the fall of an uncontrolled cargo from a height of 400–600 meters relative to sea level in an air environment under the influence of gravity, air drag, and wind in the presence of an initial air speed of about 20 m/s. The study solves the task to build a ballistic model of the movement of an unguided cargo during autonomous high-precision dropping from an unmanned aerial vehicle of aircraft type. A system of equations was derived that explicitly describes the dependence of the cargo's travel speed and coordinates on time and takes into account the effect of gravity, air drag, and the influence of wind. The scope of application of the equations corresponds to drop heights of up to 400 m relative to the surface of the earth and the initial horizontal speed of the cargo up to 20 m/s. The resulting equations were analyzed using an example of a spherical load weighing 10 kg and the largest cross-sectional area of 7.1·10-2 m2 when it falls from heights of 200, 300, and 400 m relative to the earth's surface. In the absence of wind, the horizontal component of the load's speed at the moment of falling is ≈(13–15) m/s, and the vertical component is ≈(50–60) m/s. At the same time, the horizontal displacement of the load under the conditions of a weak crosswind can reach ≈(150–220) m. With a vertical wind speed profile, the equivalent constant wind speed can be determined, resulting in the same effect on the load as a variable speed wind. An algorithm for determining the point of unloading the cargo has been proposed. The cargo delivery error has been evaluated. The most important parameters are the flight time of the cargo and the drop height. In order to achieve a hit accuracy of ±5 m, an error in determining the time of the fall of the load is not more than ≈0.16 s, and an error in determining the height of the drop is not more than ±8 m

Along-strike variation in volcanic addition controlling post-breakup sedimentary infill: Pelotas margin, austral South Atlantic

Abstract. We investigate, using observations from seismic reflection data, the lateral variability in breakup extrusive magmatic addition along the strike of the Pelotas segment of the austral South Atlantic rifted margin and its control on post-rift accommodation space and sediment deposition. Our analysis of regional seismic reflection profiles shows that magmatic addition on the Pelotas margin varies substantially along strike from extremely magma-rich to magma-normal within a distance of ∼300 km. Using 2D flexural back-stripping, we determine the post-rift accommodation space above top volcanics. In the north, where volcanic seaward-dipping reflectors (SDRs) are thickest, the Torres High shows SDRs up to ∼20 km thick, and post-breakup water-loaded accommodation space is much less than in the south, where magmatic addition is normal and SDRs are thinner. We show that post-breakup accommodation space correlates inversely with SDR thickness, being less for magma-rich margins and more for magma-normal/intermediate margins. The Rio Grande Cone, with large sediment thickness, is underlain by small SDR thicknesses allowing large post-breakup accommodation space. A relationship is observed between the amount of volcanic material and the two-way travel time (TWTT) of first volcanics: first volcanics are observed between 1.2 and 2.2 s TWTT for the highly magmatic Torres High profile, while, in contrast, for the normally magmatic profiles in the south, first volcanics are observed between 4.2 and 6.5 s TWTT. The observed inverse relationship between post-breakup accommodation space and SDR thickness is consistent with predictions by a simple isostatic model of continental lithosphere thinning and magmatic addition melting during breakup. The methodology that we use in this paper provides a new approach for investigating the complex magmatic and sedimentary evolution of rifted continental margins.

Lithospheric Evolution and Uplift of the Tibetan Plateau During Continental Convergence: Evidence From Early Oligocene Pseudo leucite Phonolites from Southern Qian tang, Central Tibet

Abstract The Cenozoic collision of India and Eurasia clearly built the high-elevation Tibetan Plateau, but how this collision was accommodated, and the Tibetan Plateau uplifted, remains an area of study. The widespread occurrence of Cenozoic potassic–ultrapotassic lavas provides a valuable opportunity to constrain the relationship between surface deformation and underlying geodynamic processes. In this study, we report sanidine Ar–Ar dating, whole-rock geochemical and clinopyroxene Sr–Nd isotope analyses on pseudoleucite phonolites from the Yulinshan area of south Qiangtang (central Tibet) to determine their petrogenesis and regional tectonic significance. Sanidine Ar–Ar dating yields an Early Oligocene age of ca. 30 Ma, in agreement with previous studies. A high modal abundance of pseudoleucite in the samples indicates their ultrapotassic and silica-undersaturated composition. All of the rocks have typical arc-like geochemical signatures and enriched whole rock and clinopyroxene Sr–Nd isotope signatures. Based on thermodynamic phase equilibria modeling and our detailed study of the textural and in-situ compositional information of clinopyroxene, the intermediate to felsic potassic magmas are interpreted to have been formed through differentiation of primitive, mantle-derived, potassic magmas at shallow crustal levels. The inferred enrichment of the lithospheric mantle is probably related to subduction of the Songpan–Ganze continental lithosphere beneath Qiangtang after India-Asia collision. Voluminous Late Eocene–Early Oligocene magmatism in central Tibet may reflect partial removal of the mantle lithosphere, perhaps triggered by instabilities associated with previous lithospheric thickening. Our work provides additional constraints on the timing of mantle root loss that likely contributed to the surface uplift of central Tibet, which post-dated the cessation of upper crustal shortening and deformation.

Database Construction and Application of Large-scale Geospatial Data

Abstract. Geospatial data refers to data that related to spatial location. It is the abstract representation of objects, events, or other characteristic information located on or near the surface of the Earth. It characterizes attribute features, spatial features, and associated information of geospatial features. Geospatial data commonly include various data types such as point, polyline, polygon, and so on. Geospatial database is the basic method to store and manage geospatial data. It is also the important component of geographic information systems (GIS). Geospatial database generally stores data in a specific structure in a medium, which can achieve efficient management of geospatial data. Users can add, modify, and delete data efficiently. Furthermore, query retrieval and statistical analysis can be quickly performed based on geospatial database. In this paper, distributed geospatial database is constructed by using database partition tables storage technology. Meanwhile, database construction software is developed to achieve the construction, management, and application of large-scale geospatial data. It can improve data import, query and retrieval efficiency significantly. The database application service system can directly connect to the database for displaying statistical analysis results. At the same time, geospatial data are processed to vector tiles, which stored in the tile database. Furthermore, standard online service is then published, which can be used for database management and application service system. It can be used for natural resource management work such as basic surveying, survey and monitoring, and so on.

Algae-fungi symbioses and bacteria-fungi co-exclusion drive tree species-specific differences in canopy bark microbiomes.

With over 3 trillion trees, forest ecosystems comprise nearly one-third of the terrestrial surface of the Earth. Very little attention has been given to the exploration of the above-ground plant microbiome of trees, its complex trophic interactions, and variations among tree species. To address this knowledge gap, we applied a primer-independent shotgun metatranscriptomic approach to assess the entire living canopy bark microbiome comprising prokaryotic and eukaryotic primary producers, decomposers, and various groups of consumers. With almost 1500 genera, we found a high microbial diversity on three tree species with distinct bark textures: oak (Quercus robur), linden (Tilia cordata), both with rough bark, and maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) with smooth bark. Core co-occurrence network analysis revealed a rich food web dominated by algal primary producers, and bacterial and fungal decomposers, sustaining a diverse community of consumers, including protists, microscopic metazoans and predatory bacteria. Whereas maple accommodated a depauperate microbiome, oak and linden accommodated a richer microbiome mainly differing in their relative community composition: Bacteria exhibited an increased dominance on linden, whereas co-occurring algae and fungi dominated on oak, highlighting the importance of algal-fungal lichen symbioses even at the microscopic scale. Further, due to bacteria-fungi co-exclusion, bacteria on bark are not the main beneficiaries of algae-derived carbon compounds as it is known from aquatic systems.

Anthropogenic impacts on the terrestrial subsurface biosphere.

The terrestrial subsurface is estimated to be the largest reservoir of microbial life on Earth. However, the subsurface also harbours economic, industrial and environmental resources, on which humans heavily rely, including diverse energy sources and formations for the storage of industrial waste and carbon dioxide for climate change mitigation. As a result of this anthropogenic activity, the subsurface landscape is transformed, including the subsurface biosphere. Through the creation of new environments and the introduction of substrates that fuel microbial life, the structure and function of subsurface microbiomes shift markedly. These microbial changes often have unintended effects on overall ecosystem function and are frequently challenging to manage from the surface of the Earth. In this Review, we highlight emerging research that investigates the impacts of anthropogenic activity on the terrestrial subsurface biosphere. We explore how humans alter the constraints on microbial life in the subsurface through drilling, mining, contamination and resource extraction, along with the resulting impacts of microorganisms on resource recovery and subsurface infrastructure.

Rifting in the Paleoproterozoic Onega Basin: geochemistry of volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Zaonega Formation

The study of the volcanogenic-sedimentary sequence in the lower part of the Zaonega Formation in the Paleoproterozoic Onega structure (Karelian craton, Fennoscandian Shield) has shown that tuffs and high-silica rocks predominate in its composition. High-silica rocks (SiO2 up to 94 wt. %) are depleted of all elements and probably representing chemogenic siliceous silt. Tuff rocks are close to N-MORB basalts in terms of major element content and rare element distribution character. This association is common to the early stages of continental rifting in the Phanerozoic and may indicate the formation of volcanogenic-sedimentary complexes of the Zaonega Formation in the environment of continental rifting. The mafic rocks in the lower part of the Zaonega Formation are geochemically identical to dolerite dikes and N-MORB-type basalts of 2.10–2.14 Ga age. Their formation was probably related to the same episode of large-scale stretching and thinning of the continental lithosphere of the Karelian craton in the mid–Paleoproterozoic. In this case, the age limit of the Zaonega and underlying Tulomozero Formations should be somewhat older than the 2.06–2.10 Ga interval accepted in modern regional stratigraphic schemes of the Paleoproterozoic of Fennoscandian shield.

Adria microplate: a puzzling key stone in west-central Mediterranean geodynamics

The Mediterranean region denotes a special plate tectonic environment as the two big plates, Africa and Eurasia, primarily provide the main frame while the dominant players are the small oceanic basins and the continental micro plates (MP) that for the past 80 Ma was the Adria MP. In this environment slab rollback subduction, orogenic arc formation and rotation of crustal blocks are common. While the tectonic setting and involvement in geodynamic processes of Adria MP might not be unique in global terms, it presents Adria as an ideal natural laboratory to study the geodynamic processes individually and in their combined effects in a generally well-studied and rather wellaccessible region. The current extension of the Adria MP is defined by the continental Moho as far into the bounding orogens as the latter could be confirmed. The slabs surrounding Adria dominate and characterize the geodynamics of this MP and in most cases their geometries and the possible connection with Adria are well defined by tomographic images. The Ionian oceanic lithosphere slab subducting beneath Calabria has been torn off and detached from the very short South Apennines slab remaining attached to Adria. On the southeastern side we observe the Adria slab beneath the Hellenides that seems detached from the Ionian oceanic lithosphere slab of the Hellenic subduction zone. Along the Dinarides a slab gap is observed analogue to the slab window on Adria MP’s western side between the South Apennines and the North Apennines. Encircled by three orogens, the Adria continental lithosphere has been and still is strongly affected by the subductions surrounding it. In the northern part of the Adria MP, the North Apennines slab rollback is the obvious dominant geodynamic force acting locally on the plate while in contrast, the slabs beneath the Eastern Alps and beneath the Hellenides seem stagnant. This study presents a brief overview of the wealth of information aiming to summarize the main constraints on Adria MP available and it discusses some of the questions surrounding this key player in west-central Mediterranean geodynamics.

Tracking subduction-related metasomatism of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle using Ca-, O-, and H-isotopes

Mantle xenoliths provide effective records of the metasomatic processes that affect continental lithosphere evolution, such as interaction with subducted components or modification via small-degree melts. Correlations between major/trace element geochemistry with stable and radiogenic isotope compositions can help constrain the source and timing of this metasomatism. We report new δ18O, δ44/40Ca, and δD values for twelve kimberlite-hosted mantle xenoliths from the Slave Craton (NWT, Canada), which show varying degrees of metasomatism. The δ18O values of olivine (δ18Ool = +5.33 ± 0.13‰; 1σ; n = 12) overlap average mantle values. Clinopyroxene and garnet δ18O values (δ18Ocpx = +5.31 ± 0.10‰; δ18Ogrt = +5.37 ± 0.23‰; 1σ) extend below those reported in most mantle peridotites and are strongly correlated with clinopyroxene δ44/40Ca (avg. = +1.00 ± 0.10‰; 1σ) and garnet δ44/40Ca (avg. = +1.18 ± 0.19‰; 1σ) respectively, extending from typical mantle values to low δ18O and high δ44/40Ca values. In general, Δ18Ocpx-ol and Δ18Ogrt-ol (ranging from −0.19‰ to +0.19‰ and from −0.56‰ to +0.35‰, respectively) are lower than expected equilibrium values at mantle temperatures. Strong negative correlations are found between δ18Ogrt and Δ18Ogrt-ol and garnet major and trace element composition (Na2O, H2O, La/YbN). Furthermore, phlogopite-bearing kelyphitic rims have δD values (avg. = −126 ± 13‰; 1σ) lower than typical mantle values. Whole rock Sm-Nd model ages and oxygen isotope diffusion modeling suggest that metasomatism occurred during the Mesozoic, shortly before kimberlite entrainment, consistent with indications from diamond-forming fluids from the Slave craton. The combined low δ18O, δD, and high δ44/40Ca signature of the mantle peridotite xenoliths, along with the age constraints, suggest the metasomatic fluid/melt is sourced from a recycled oceanic crust component related to Mesozoic subduction in western North America.

Lightning activity in India an important cause of increase in fatalities

With Recent increase in deaths due to lightning activity in India we are posed with a question - are these fatalities related to increase in the lightning activity owing to climate change? The IPCC report (2013) projects global warming of 1-5 °C by the end of 21st Century. The global warming is closely related to increased concentration of greenhouse gases. Previous studies have shown that on different temporal and spatial scales small increases in surface temperature leads to increase in thunderstorm and lightning activity. The lightning induced deaths are on the rise especially in the tropical south Asia and Africa but IPCC report does not explicitly deals with lightning activity and its future projection. Studies on this aspect become all the more important as the subgrid scale phenomena such as convective clouds and hence lightning are poorly resolved and taken in to account by climate models. In order to address this issue we have analyzed trends of lightning activity, surface temperature, upper tropospheric water vapour, cloud ice, Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE) and aerosols. We also present correlation of these parameters with lightning activity using lightning flash rate data of Lightning Imaging Sensor aboard TRMM, TRMM Level -2 Precipitation Radar data, gridded temperature data of IMD, aerosol data acquired by MODIS. The result indicates that upper tropospheric temperature rise is more than surface temperature rise. This imply stable atmosphere with fewer thunderstorms. The increased convection transports additional water vapour into upper troposphere. The water vapour acts as green house has by absorbing infrared radiation emitted by the surface of the Earth. This results in more warming in the upper troposphere than at the surface and stabilizing of the atmosphere. However, results also show that within the thunderstorm the instability measured by CAPE is positively correlated with lightning activity. This paradox of stabilization of global mean atmosphere with increase in lighting activity leads us to conclude that tough thunderstorm activity has subdued but those develop are much more explosive producing more lightning activity and perhaps lead to more fatalities.

Location of Geomagnetic Disturbances in Relation to the Field Aligned Current Boundary

AbstractGeomagnetic disturbances (GMDs) are rapid fluctuations in the strength and direction of the magnetic field near the surface of the Earth which can cause electric currents to be induced in the ground. The geomagnetically induced currents (GICs) can cause damage to pipelines and power grids. A detection algorithm has been developed to identify rapid changes in 10 s averaged magnetometer data. This higher resolution data is important in capturing the most rapid changes associated with extreme GIC events. The algorithm has been used on an array of ground‐based magnetometers from SuperMAG data from 2010 to 2022, creating a new list of global GMDs. Data from the Active Magnetosphere and Planetary Electrodynamics Response Experiment (AMPERE) is used to place the observed GMDs in the context of the global pattern of magnetosphere‐ionosphere field‐aligned currents (FACs). A dawn sector population of GMDs is found to lie near the boundary between the region 1 and region 2 FACs, while a pre‐midnight sector population is found to occur poleward of the FAC boundary on region 1 upward FACs. It is also shown that the latitude of the GMDs expands with the FAC boundary and their occurrence peaks around 77° magnetic latitude.

Evaluating the reliability of UAV-based carbon dioxide measurements in the lower troposphere

Vertical profiles of carbon dioxide (CO2) were captured in rural Ontario, Canada, using an Aeroqual Series 500 monitor mounted onboard an Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Measurements at various altitudes within the Transport Canada regulations height limit (5m – 95m) were compared to simultaneous measurements taken by an identical sensor at ground-level. Results demonstrate a high degree of agreement between onboard and ground-level observations, with a mean different of -6.02 ppm, and the majority of differences falling within the sensor’s factory calibration accuracy (±10 ppm + 5%). The study also demonstrates the ability to capture the homogeneity of CO2 in the lower troposphere, with Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC) exceeding 0.75 at all altitudes, without the addition of turbulence by UAV flight. The vertical profiles captured in this study validate the use of UAV-based measurements for understanding the distribution and transport of greenhouse gases near the surface of the Earth. This research has implications for routine air quality monitoring to improve atmospheric models, environmental impact assessments and the development of targeted emission reduction strategies.

Two-stage estimation of hourly diffuse solar radiation across China using end-to-end gradient boosting with sequentially boosted features

Diffuse solar radiation (DR) constitutes a vital component of solar energy reaching the surface of the Earth. The demand for extensive temporal and spatial coverage of DR data has intensified in the realms of solar energy harvesting, agriculture, and climate change. However, until now, long-term DR observations have only been available from 17 stations across mainland China. Consequently, there is a pressing need to estimate spatially continuous, high-temporal-resolution DR for large-scale regions in China. The current hindrance to DR estimations stems from the scarcity of stations equipped with DR observations. This study proposes a two-stage strategy to efficiently estimate seamless DR in 2019 at a national scale, leveraging both DR and total solar radiation (TR) observations from numerous stations. In the first stage, the approach generates virtual DR at TR stations by establishing a learned relationship between DR and TR observations. Subsequently, in the second stage, these virtual DR data, in conjunction with satellite and reanalysis datasets, are utilized to estimate national-scale DR. Additionally, a novel model, End-to-end Gradient Boosting with Shortcuts and Feature selection (EGB-SF), is introduced to estimate DR over China. One advantage of this model is its consideration of the impact of sequentially boosted features and their interactions. Embedded shortcut connections fully exploit the influence of existing features on newly introduced ones during the learning process. Beyond enhancing the accuracy of DR estimation, the EGB-SF algorithm can also elucidate the relative importance levels of input features to the model. Moreover, the two-stage strategy outperforms the method of estimating national DR using only DR observations, as evidenced by its superior spatial generalization abilities. Statistical evaluation, collaborative analysis with influencing factors, and comparisons with related products confirm the accuracy and spatial continuity of the DR estimations in this study. These results furnish reliable DR data across China for research in agriculture, climate, solar radiation, and related fields.

Lateral Distribution Function Estimation of Electrons and Muons using Nishimura-Kamata-Greisen Function

Abstract The density of charged particles in extensive air showers reaching the surface of the Earth was calculated by estimating the lateral distribution function (LDF) of different primary particles at high energies. LDF simulation was performed using the AIRES system (version 19.04.10), a set of programs and subroutines designed to simulate ultra-high-energy air showers resulting from the interaction of cosmic rays with the Earth’s atmosphere. This system includes algorithms for fast simulation and output data management, and can simulate particle showers realistically and manage the related data efficiently. Its aim is to contribute to research on high-energy cosmic ray interactions for two charged particles, like muons and electrons, at very high energies (1016, 1018, and 1019 eV) and taking into account the effect of particles, such as protons, helium nuclei, and iron nuclei, and primary energies and zenith angles (0°, 20°, and 40°). The LDF was also calculated using the Nishimura–Kamata–Greisen function, and good agreement was found with the results produced by the AIRES system for high-energy muons and electrons created by primary particles.

Global warming: Causes, impacts and urgent strategies for a sustainable future: A review

Global warming is defined as a rise in Earth's average temperature. As the Earth gets warmer, disasters such as droughts, hurricanes, and floods are becoming increasingly common. Most scientists, engineers, and activists express deep concern about changes in the planet's overall climate. The average air temperature above the surface of the Earth has risen by just below 1 degree Celsius, or 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit, over the past 100 years. Deforestation exacerbates the severity of global warming. The ocean, which holds about 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere, is an enormous carbon sink. However, the seas are no longer able to store carbon as effectively as they have in the past. Burning fossil fuels such as natural gas, oil, coal, and gasoline increases atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, and carbon dioxide is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect and global warming. Climate change will increase the number of people who suffer from heatwaves, floods, hurricanes, and droughts, leading to higher rates of death, illness, and injury. The threat of global warming continues to cause severe damage to the Earth's environment. Many people still do not fully understand the implications of global warming or consider it a significant problem for the future. However, global warming is already happening, and some of its devastating consequences are already being felt. It significantly impacts biodiversity and disrupts ecological balance. Due to the dangerous effects of global warming, many strategies need to be established. The report discusses global warming, outlines its causes and risks, and proposes solutions to this urgent issue. Above all, it is crucial to seriously consider alternative energy sources (biomass, wind, hydro, geothermal, and solar). One of the key strategies to counter the ever-increasing global warming is the identification and use of renewable energy sources.

The study of the city of Rudny as a “heat island”

The annual increase in surface air temperatures contributes to climate change. This phenomenon is widespread over the entire surface of the Earth and is typical for any point of the planet. The purpose of this study was to identify patterns of changes in meteorological indicators in the city of Rudny, Kostanay region, Republic of Kazakhstan over the summer period 2018–2022. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that for the first time the spatial distribution of the heat index in the territory of the city of Rudny was determined. To conduct the study, data from local automated weather stations were used, meteorological data was analyzed, compared for each year of the study, and the heat index was calculated. The reliability of the results is ensured by mathematical processing of daily empirical temperature and humidity data (calculation of the average for the day, the average for the month), coefficient of variation, coefficient of dispersion. The conducted research provides a clear description of climate changes in the city of Rudny, which can be used by municipal authorities to form measures to reduce the thermal impact on public health, heat loss in the housing and communal services system, and to improve air quality when planning urban infrastructure in the territory of the studied city.