Anthraquinone Content Research Articles

Metabolomic characteristics and anthraquinones accumulation patterns of Rhubarb in different tissues and roots from different developmental stages

Rhubarb’s multifaceted value in culinary and medicine is renowned, especially Rheum tanguticum (Rhubarb), whose bountiful content of anthraquinones (AQs) makes it increasingly attractive in the realms of dietary supplements and natural edible pigments. Current understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics of AQs accumulation in Rhubarb remains limited, and the knowledge of other valuable metabolites is even more scarce. This gap limits the ability to fully explore Rhubarb's potential as a food ingredient and hinders its efficient use in food development, potentially leading to unnecessary resource waste. This study integrated widely targeted metabolomics and AQs quantification to determine the metabolic profiles in four tissues and the roots at three developmental stages in Rhubarb. The high levels of malic and citric acids in the stems paved the way for their use in flavored beverages and substantiated the practice of traditional consumption. The abundance of flavonoids in the leaves and seeds, and the AQs, phenolic acids of the seeds, which potentially bestowed upon them exceptional antioxidant capabilities, underscore the significant potential of edible product development. The widespread traditional use of roots was mirrored by the preferential accumulation of AQs, and the roots' value escalated in tandem with the time-accumulated increase of AQs. The root bark and root tip with high AQs should be given attention in production and not simply discarded. This research clarifies the chemical composition and spatiotemporal variation patterns of Rhubarb’s characteristic components, offering valuable scientific insights for their efficient use and value enhancement in the food industry.

Phytochemical Profiling and Comparative Analysis of the Bioactive Compounds in Adansonia digitata, Morinda citrifolia and Tamarindus indica from Igabi Local Government Area, Kaduna State

Study’s Excerpt A comparative phytochemical analysis of Adansonia digitata stem bark, Morinda citrifolia leaves, and Tamarindus indica leaves was carried out. UV/visible spectrophotometric technique is used for the identification of phytochemical compounds. These plants have considerable potential as sources for drug development and functional foods. Full Abstract For decades, man has utilized plants as traditional medicine to cure various illnesses. The majority of modern medications now available have been generated from plants. This study subjected the ethanolic crude extract of Adansonia digitata stem bark, Morinda citrifolia leaves, and Tamarindus indica leaves to phytochemical analysis. Ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometric techniques were used to quantify the bioactive compounds detected in the plants. Qualitative analysis indicated the presence of alkaloids, cardiac glycosides, saponins, phenolic compounds, tannins, steroids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, terpenoids, reducing sugars, and quinones in all three plant extracts. Anthraquinones were detected only in A. digitata, while coumarins, though present in M. citrifolia and T. indica, were absent in A. digitata. Adansonia digitata recorded a higher content of anthraquinones (59.3 mg/g), phenols (79.3 mg/g), and tannins (286.1 mg/g) than M. citrifolia and T. indica. Alkaloids (45.5 mg/g), flavonoids (124.0 mg/g), saponins (38.7 mg/g), and triterpenes (23.8 mg/g) were found to be higher in T. indica than in A. digitata and M. citrifolia. Statistical analysis shows significant variation in the concentration of these compounds between the sampled plants (p < 0.05). The high bioactive content of A. digitata and T. indica indicates their potential as outstanding bioactive compound repositories suitable for drug development, purification, and functional food uses.

Integrated Small Intestine Microbiota and Serum Metabolomics Reveal the Potential Mechanisms of Wine Steaming in Alleviating Rhubarb-Induced Diarrhea.

Long-term use of rhubarb (RH) commonly leads to diarrhea, which can be alleviated by steaming with wine. However, the specific mechanism by which wine steaming alleviates RH-induced diarrhea remains unknown. This study aims to reveal the underlying mechanisms of wine steaming in alleviating RH-induced diarrhea by examining small intestinal flora and serum metabolomics. Major anthraquinone and anthrone components were detected using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). Eighty-four ICR mice were randomly divided into control, RH, and RH steamed with wine (PRH) groups and were administered RH and PRH (1, 4, and 8 g/kg, i.g). for 14 consecutive days. Histopathological analysis was performed using hematoxylin-eosin staining. Levels of inflammatory factors and tight junction proteins, zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin, in the small intestine were measured. The small intestine content was analyzed using 16S rRNA sequencing, and UPLC-MS was used to analyze endogenous metabolites. Levels of major anthraquinone and anthrone components decreased in PRH. Both RH and PRH groups showed varying degrees of loose stools and increased fecal water rates; the RH group exhibited more severe effects. Compared with the control group, RH caused small intestine injuries, increased levels of inflammatory cytokines, downregulated the expression of ZO-1 and occludin, and induced gut microbiota (GM) imbalance. The relative abundance of Lactobacillus decreased, while the relative abundance of Shigella and Streptococcus increased. However, PRH had a milder impact than RH. The glycerophospholipid metabolic pathway was involved in this effect. The levels of inflammatory cytokines and potential metabolites (sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine) were positively correlated with Streptococcus infection, while the levels of ZO-1 and occludin were negatively correlated with Streptococcus infection. GM imbalance and abnormal glycerophospholipid metabolism contributed to impaired intestinal barrier function and inflammatory factor release, which may underlie RH-induced diarrhea, though PRH had a weaker effect. PRH alleviated RH-induced diarrhea by recovering GM balance, reducing ZO-1 and occludin expression, and decreasing the release of inflammatory factors. This mechanism may be linked to the reduced anthraquinone content. This study is the first to explore the mechanism of wine steaming in alleviating RH-induced diarrhea through small intestinal flora and serum metabolomics. It provides data to support the broader clinical use of RH and its safer application.

Integrated gut microbiota and serum pharmacochemistry reveal the mechanisms of wine steaming in alleviating rhubarb diarrhea

BackgroundLong-term use of rhubarb (RH) can cause adverse gastrointestinal reactions (such as diarrhea), whereas RH steaming with wine (PRH) can alleviate RH-induced diarrhea. However, the potential material basis and mechanisms by which wine steaming alleviates diarrhea caused by RH remain unclear. PurposeTo reveal the potential material basis and underlying mechanisms of wine steaming in alleviating diarrhea caused by RH from the perspective of small intestinal flora and immune function. MethodsThe major anthraquinone/anthrone components were detected using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Constipation model mice were replicated using loperamide hydrochloride and were administered RH and PRH for six consecutive weeks. Histopathological observation (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) was performed using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, and the serum levels of inflammatory cytokines, immunoglobulin G (IgG), and immunoglobulin A (IgA) were examined. CD4+, CD8+, and Treg cells counts in peripheral blood were determined using flow cytometry; The protein expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) was determined using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and western blot (WB). The small intestine contents and feces were analyzed by 16 S rRNA sequencing and the contents of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in feces were determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) was used to analyze the blood absorption compounds and endogenous metabolites. ResultsThe levels of the major anthraquinone/anthrone components were decreased in PRH. RH and PRH both increased the wet fecal weight at 12 h (WFW-12) and fecal water rate (FWR), alleviated the dry and black fecal morphology, and relieved small intestine injuries in the second week. In the fourth week, although RH and PRH alleviated the abnormal levels of indicators in the model mice (fecal water rate, immune cells percentage, and TLR4/NF-κB expression), minor small intestinal damage was observed. Compared to that at the fourth week, RH and PRH increased the levels of WFW-12, FWR, inflammatory cytokines, and TLR4/NF-κB expression, and decreased the levels of IgG/IgA and immune cells with extended administration (sixth week). Further, damage to the small intestine worsened (severe ileal damage) and different degrees of loose stools were observed in RH- and PRH-administered mice in the sixth week. Compared with those in the control group, the levels of WFW-12, FWR, inflammatory cytokines, TLR4/NF-κB expression, IgG/IgA, and immune cell percentage were significantly different in the RH-H and PRH-H mice at the sixth week (except for CD8+in PRH-H). Further, RH and PRH disturbed the gut microbiota (GM) (Lactobacillus and Dubosiella decreased, Aerococcus and Corynebacterium increased) and obviously reduced the content of SCFAs (acetic acid, butyric acid, and isobutyric acid). However, almost all the results indicated a lower impact of PRH than that of RH. Metabolic pathways mainly involved in glycerophospholipid metabolism were identified along with a total of 21 blood absorption components, including anthraquinones, anthrones, flavanols, and tannins. The correlation analysis showed a positive correlation of pathogenic bacteria (Aerococcus and Corynebacterium) with inflammatory cytokines, TLR4/NF-κB, LysoPC(20:0/0:0), and PE (16:0/20:4(8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z)) and a negative correlation with immune cells and SCFAs (acetic acid and isobutyric acid); however, the opposite results were observed for beneficial bacteria (Lactobacillus and Dubosiella). ConclusionOverall, PRH can alleviate RH-induced diarrhea by recovering the GM imbalance and abnormal levels of GM-mediated SCFAs, alleviating the decrease in cellular immune function and abnormal expression of TLR4/NF-κB, thereby suppressing the release of inflammatory factors, possibly, through its lower content of anthraquinones. This study explored for the first time the processing mechanism of wine steaming in alleviating RH-induced diarrhea from the aspects of small intestinal flora and small intestinal immune function.

Preliminary phytochemical and biological activity screening of Sargassum lapazeanum

Algae are exposed to substantial stress. In response, these organisms have developed efficient defense systems, such as protective secondary metabolite synthesis, making algae a primary source of bioactive compounds with a wide spectrum of biological activities. Thus, algae show potential for use in treatments of thrombotic, infectious, and chronic degenerative diseases. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the phytochemical compounds and pharmacological activity of an extract obtained from Sargassum lapazeanum. Algae were collected in the intertidal zone of Tarabillas beach (Bahía de La Paz, BCS). The biological activities of an ethanolic extract and its fractions were evaluated using chromatographic techniques. In addition, a bioautographic assay of hemolytic activity was conducted, and phytochemical profiles and acute toxicity in Artemia franciscana were evaluated. The relationships among the main extract components were also determined. The ethanolic extract exhibited significant antioxidant and hemolytic activity, which was mainly attributed to its content of anthrones, anthraquinones, and unsaturated triterpenes. Its toxicological activity reached an LC50 value of 225.1 μg mL-1, which was mainly attributed to alkaloids, flavonoids, anthrones, and saponins. The results suggest that Sargassum lapazeanum, which is endemic to the Gulf of California, has great pharmacological potential with biomedical applications.

Segmented variable-frequency ultrasound synergistic hot-air drying of Rhubarb: Effect on drying characteristics and quality and thermal analysis

This study employed segmented variable-frequency ultrasound synergistic hot-air drying (SVFU-HAD) for Rhubarb slices, selected two sets of time nodes for frequency conversion (60 min, 120 min, and 90 min, 150 min), and two sequences of frequency conversion (high-frequency to low-frequency, and low-frequency to high-frequency). It aimed to investigate the effects of SVFU-HAD on the drying characteristics, quality, and heat transfer of Rhubarb slices. The findings indicated that segmented variable-frequency ultrasound has advantages in increasing drying rate and improving uniformity of cavitation effects compared to constant-frequency ultrasound. Analysis of physical properties revealed that the rehydration performance of dried products subjected to ultrasonic variable-frequency treatment (90 min, 150 min) according to the drying rate was better (RR > 3.3). The transition mode from high-frequency to low-frequency in variable-frequency ultrasonic treatment contributes to maintaining the overall color of Rhubarb. Analysis of chemical properties unveiled that Rhubarb treated with 40 kHz (0 min)–28 kHz (60 min)–25 kHz (120 min) segmented variable-frequency ultrasound contained overall higher levels of tannins, dianthrones and free anthraquinones content, which exceeded the average values by 3.24%, 26.65%, and 14.42%, respectively. In addition, thermal analysis results based on ANSYS Workbench software demonstrated that the drying uniformity of SVFU-HAD is superior to that of hot-air drying and constant-frequency ultrasound synergistic hot-air drying (CFU-HAD). Overall, the SVFU-HAD method employed in this study presents an innovative approach to ultrasound synergistic hot-air drying research with promising potential for enhancing the efficiency and quality characteristics of Rhubarb slices.

Traditional method of rhubarb processing optimized by combining flavor analysis with anthraquinone content determination.

Rhubarb is a popular food that relieves constipation and aids with weight loss. The traditional method of preparation, includes steaming and sun-drying rhubarb nine times (SDR-9) to reduce its toxicity and increase efficacy. Flavor analysis includes odor analysis by gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry and taste characterization using an electronic tongue. Odor analysis of the samples prepared through SDR-9 identified 61 volatile compounds, including aldehydes, esters, alcohols, ketones, acids, alkenes, and furans. Of these, 13 volatile components were the key substances associated with odor. This enabled the process to be divided into two stages: 1-5 times of steaming and sun-drying and 6-9 times. In the second stage, SDR-6 and SDR-9 were grouped together in terms of odor. Analysis using electronic tongue revealed that the most prominent taste was bitterness. A radar map indicated that the bitterness response was the highest for raw rhubarb, whereas that for processed (steamed and sun-dried) rhubarb decreased. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) clustering results for SDR-6 and SDR-9 samples indicated that their tastes were similar. Anthraquinones were analyzed via high-performance liquid chromatography; moreover, analysis of the taste and components of the SDR samples revealed a significant correlation. These results indicate that there are similarities between SDR-6 and SDR-9 in terms of smell, taste, and composition, indicating that the steaming and sun-drying cycles can be conducted six times instead of nine.

Simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of anthraquinones in sicklepod sprouts with α-glucosidase inhibitory activity.

Sicklepod [Cassia obtusifolia L. syn Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby, Fabaceae] sprouts are promising ingredients with health-promoting benefits. Notwithstanding, the pharmacologically active compounds in sicklepod sprouts have not been studied or analysed in detail. This study aimed to isolate and structurally identify phytochemicals showing α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in sicklepod sprouts and simultaneously quantify the compounds in the sprouts to determine the optimal cultivation method and germination time to maximise active compounds. A simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) method with high sensitivity and accuracy was developed and used to analyse time-dependent changes in anthraquinone content during sicklepod germination. Thirteen anthraquinones were isolated and identified, of which six-chrysoobtusin, emodin, 1-O-methyl-2-methoxychrysophanol, 7-O-methylobtusin, chrysophanol, and physcion-showed moderate α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. The maximum content of anthraquinones in a sprout was observed on Day 5 under both light and dark conditions. The findings of this study revealed that sicklepod sprouts which are promising functional food materials contain a variety of anthraquinones.

Metabolomics analysis reveals the metabolite profiles of Rheum tanguticum grown under different altitudinal gradients

BackgroundPlant growth and quality are often affected by environmental factors, including geographical location, climate, and soil. In this study, we describe the effect of altitudinal differences on the growth and active ingredients in Rheum tanguticum Maxim. ex Balf. (R. tanguticum), a traditional Chinese medicinal herb known for its laxative properties.ResultsThe results showed that plants grown at lower altitudes had better growth performances than those in higher altitude areas. The yield varied by 2.45–23.68 times with altitude, reaching a maximum of 102.01 t/ha. In addition, total anthraquinone and total sennoside contents decreased with increasing altitude, whereas total tannins increased with increasing altitude. The total anthraquinone content of the indicator compound reached 5.15% at five experimental sites, which exceeded the Chinese Pharmacopoeia standard by 70.87%. The content of the other two categories of active ingredients reached a maximum value of 0.94% (total sennosides) and 2.65% (total tannins). Redundancy analysis revealed that annual rainfall, annual average temperature, annual sunshine hours, and pH significantly affected growth and active ingredients. Moreover, key metabolites, such as flavonoids, amino acids and their derivatives, phenolic acids, lipids, and terpenes, were differentially expressed between samples from low- and high-altitude cultivation areas. These metabolites were enriched in the flavonoid and flavonol biosynthetic pathway and the monoterpene biosynthetic pathway.ConclusionsThese results suggest that high anthraquinone content was observed in the lowest-latitude cultivation area due to low rainfall and alkaline soil pH. Key metabolites were significantly upregulated in high-latitude cultivation areas. These results provide a scientific basis for quality control and the systematic cultivation of R. tanguticum.

A prenyltransferase participates in the biosynthesis of anthraquinones in Rubia cordifolia.

Anthraquinones (AQs) constitute the largest group of natural quinones, which are used as safe natural dyes and have many pharmaceutical applications. In plants, AQs are biosynthesized through two main routes: the polyketide pathway and the shikimate pathway. The latter primarily forms alizarin-type AQs, and the prenylation of 1,4-dihydroxy-2-naphthoic acid (DHNA) is the first pathway-specific step. However, the prenyltransferase (PT) responsible for this key step remains uncharacterized. In this study, the cell suspension culture of Madder (Rubia cordifolia), a plant rich in alizarin-type AQs, was discovered to be capable of prenylating DHNA to form 2-carboxyl-3-prenyl-1,4-naphthoquinone and 3-prenyl-1,4-naphthoquinone. Then, a candidate gene belonging to the UbiA superfamily, R. cordifoliadimethylallyltransferase 1 (RcDT1), was shown to account for the prenylation activity. Substrate specificity studies revealed that the recombinant RcDT1 recognized naphthoic acids primarily, followed by 4-hydroxyl benzoic acids. The prenylation activity was strongly inhibited by 1,2- and 1,4-dihydroxynaphthalene. RcDT1 RNA interference significantly reduced the AQs content in R. cordifolia callus cultures, demonstrating that RcDT1 is required for alizarin-type AQs biosynthesis. The plastid localization and root-specific expression further confirmed the participation of RcDT1 in anthraquinone biosynthesis. The phylogenetic analyses of RcDT1 and functional validation of its rubiaceous homologs indicated that DHNA-prenylation activity evolved convergently in Rubiaceae via recruitment from the ubiquinone biosynthetic pathway. Our results demonstrate that RcDT1 catalyzes the first pathway-specific step of alizarin-type AQs biosynthesis in R. cordifolia. These findings will have profound implications for understanding the biosynthetic process of the anthraquinone ring derived from the shikimate pathway.

Rheum khorasanicum. Hydroalcoholic root extract induces cell death in human colorectal adenocarcinoma: An in vitro and in silico study

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second greatest cause of cancer-related death in the world and chemotherapy, as an important part of CRC treatment, has some drawbacks, including systemic toxicity. Therefore, it is crucial to discover new and more effective CRC treatment plans. Rheum khorasanicum (R.khorasanicum) is a medicinal plant with high flavonoids, stilbenes, and anthraquinone contents, so it can be a potential source of antioxidants and can be used for therapeutic purposes and trigger apoptosis in cancer cells. In this study, we investigated the effects of hydroalcoholic root extract of R.khorasanicum treatment on inducing mitochondrial apoptosis of HT-29 and Caco-2 human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells. Firstly, the total phenolic and flavonoid content was determined. Then, the cytotoxic effects of R.khorasanicum on cells of three different types, including HT-29 and Caco-2 colon cancer cells as well as normal 3T3 cells were assessed using the MTT assay. To investigate the characteristics of cellular death, flow cytometry, and western blotting were performed. The results of this study indicated considerable phenolic (356.4±9.4 GAE/gDW) and flavonoid (934.55±17.1 QE/gDW) contents in R.khorasanicum. MTT assay's finding indicated that 100, 60, and 30μg/mL concentrations of R.khorasanicum reduce cell viability in HT-29 and Caco-2 cell lines significantly (P<0.05). It has been also revealed that R.khorasanicum extract induces apoptosis rather than necrosis in these cell lines. Moreover, Bcl-2 expression was significantly reduced in both HT-29 and Caco-2 cell lines, while Bax and cleaved caspase-3 expression soared considerably in the groups under R.khorasanicum treatment (P<0.05). In conclusion, our findings have suggested that high phenol and flavonoid contents of R.khorasanicum root extract possibly play an important role in cell cytotoxicity and apoptosis induction in HT-29 and Caco-2 colon cancer cells.

Evaluation of phenolic and anthraquinone profiles of Polygonacaeae family from Turkey

The purpose of this research is to compare the content of phenolic compounds (catechin, esculetin, polydatin, rutin, resveratrol, quercetin) and anthraquinones (aloe-emodin, emodin, chrysophanol, physcion) in Polygonum cognatum Meissn. and Rumex crispus L. plant taxa from the flora of Turkey. Extraction parameters such as solvent, solvent ratio, and time for soxhlet method were optimized, and the most effective extraction was carried out for eight hours with methanol-water (3:1 v/v). The development and validation of an HPLC-DAD method allowed for the simultaneous quantification of phenolic compounds and anthraquinones in the plant extracts. The analytical method conditions were defined through an investigation of various parameters, including mobile phase composition, flow rate, and column temperature. The method was validated with good linearity, precision, sensitivity, and recovery. The LOD and LOQ values of the compounds were in the range of 0.032–0.457 µg/mL and 0.106–1.523 µg/mL, respectively. The findings of the study showed that this analytical method was successfully applied to identify and measure the phenolic and anthraquinone compounds in Polygonum cognatum Meissn. and Rumex crispus L. plants.

Optimization of conditions to achieve a high content of alizarin and purpurin in the adventitious roots of Rubia cordifolia L.

Rubia cordifolia L. (Indian madder) is a valuable medicinal plant known for its natural dye content, notably alizarin and purpurin, with applications in textiles and cosmetics. This study aims to optimize the concentrations of auxin, salicylic acid, elicitors, and precursors to maximize the production of alizarin and purpurin in adventitious roots. Various concentrations and combinations of auxins were systematically tested to explore their effects on the yield of adventitious root formation and dye compounds. Nodal explants cultivated in MS media supplemented with IAA + IBA + NAA (1.5 + 0.5 + 0.75 mg/L) at a pH of 5.7 exhibited the highest adventitious root production. Post-establishment of root cultures, the impact of salicylic acid, L-phenylalanine, elicitors (yeast extract, pectin, and Xylan), and the precursor α-ketoglutaric acid on the production of anthraquinones (AQ) was evaluated. High-performance liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed enriched alizarin, purpurin, and total AQ content. The maximum amount of AQ (64.65 mg/g), alizarin (17.59 mg/g), and purpurin (19.61 mg/g) was observed when cultured on 30 mg/L of α-ketoglutaric acid, compared to other elicitors and precursors. This optimized condition provides valuable insights for the sustainable cultivation and utilization of R. cordifolia as a prominent source of natural dyes. It offers practical implications for the dye industry and its production.

Characterization of the physiological parameters, effective components, and transcriptional profiles of Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. Under pH stress

Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. is a traditional Chinese medicine with extensive distribution and robust adaptability, but comprehensive research on its acid and alkali resistance is presently lacking. This study aimed to analyze the effects of 5 months of continuous pH stress on the physiological and photosynthetic parameters of P. multiflorum, and the content of effective components. Results revealed that pH stress significantly influenced the normal growth, physiological functions, and photosynthetic indicators of P. multiflorum. At soil pH 4.5, the tubers of P. multiflorum exhibited the highest levels of 2,3,5,4′-tetrahydroxy stilbene-2-O-β-d-glucoside (THSG) and total anthraquinones at 5.41% and 0.38%, respectively. However, increased soil pH significantly reduced the content of THSG and total anthraquinones. Reference-free transcriptome analysis was further conducted on P. multiflorum treated at pH 4.5 and 9.5, generating a total of 47,305 unigenes with an N50 of 2118 bp, of which 31,058 (65.65%) were annotated. Additionally, 2472 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified. Among them, 17 DEGs associated with the biosynthesis of THSG and anthraquinones were screened. A comprehensive analysis of differential gene expression and effective component content demonstrated a significant positive correlation between the content of effective components and the 14 DEGs’ expression but a negative correlation with soil pH. This study highlighted the influence of varying soil pH values on the effective component content of P. multiflorum. Specific acidic conditions proved beneficial for the synthesis and accumulation of THSG and total anthraquinones in P. multiflorum, thereby enhancing the quality of the medicinal material.

Review on Anthraquinones Isolated from Rubiaceae Family

A current economic trend is to highlight natural resources and many plant species are rich sources of anthraquinones. Anthraquinones are a diverse group of natural compounds extensively studied in various articles. Commonly used for dyes with 30% of it contributed to textile industry. Anthraquinone plays an important chromophore in cancer chemotherapy. They are widely distributed in Rubiaceae family and exhibit various biological activities. Malaysian Rubiaceae, especially plants from Morinda, Rennellia, Psychotria, and Prismatomeris genera, have been known to be rich in anthraquinone content, especially in the roots. The current review aims to provide a comprehensive update on the isolation of anthraquinones from Rubiaceae family in Malaysia. It also discussed the taxonomy, chemistry, and pharmacology studies of the genus. Through the years, 45 anthraquinones have been reported from various species of Rubiaceae demonstrating promising pharmacological activities. The information presented in this review can provide a scientific foundation for future research on the possible therapeutic applications of the species. Enhancing the links between plant biological effects and traditional uses with their chemical characterization.

Effect of Industrial Pollution in Puchuncaví Valley on the Medicinal Properties of Senecio fistulosus Poepp. ex Les (Asteraceae): Content of Phytoconstituents and Their Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activities.

Senecio fistulosus, an endemic plant in Chile, is highly regarded for its medicinal properties and is popular in alternative medicine. It thrives even in polluted areas, like Puchuncaví Valley, Chile. Therefore, the study aimed to assess the impact of industrial pollution in Puchuncaví Valley, Chile, on the phytoconstituent content, as well as the antioxidant and cytotoxic activities, of S. fistulosus. Phenols, flavonoids, and anthraquinones content were measured, alongside the assessment of antioxidant activities. Additionally, a GC-MS analysis was conducted to profile the phytoconstituents, while the cytotoxic potential was evaluated in HT-29 and MCF-7 and cell line non-tumorigenic MCF-10. The Wild sample exhibited a greater concentration of phytoconstituents (0 to 169.48 mg·L-1) compared to the Commercial control (0 to 95.38 mg·L-1), directly correlating with its antioxidant activity. While the Wild species showed cytotoxic activity, the Commercial control demonstrated cytotoxic effects on MCF-10 and MCF-7. Noteworthy compounds identified were hexadecanoic acid (12.76 to 19.57% relative area) and (Z,Z,Z)-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid (18.36% relative area), with anticancer properties. In conclusion, the abiotic stress experienced by S. fistulosus led to higher phytoconstituent content and improved antioxidant activity when contrasted with the Commercial control. The Commercial species showed increased cytotoxic activity against both tumorigenic and non-tumorigenic cell lines.

The haplotype-resolved genome assembly of autotetraploid rhubarb Rheum officinale provides insights into its genome evolution and massive accumulation of anthraquinones

Rheum officinale, a member of the Polygonaceae family, is an important medicinal plant that is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. Here, we report a 7.68-Gb chromosome-scale assembly of R. officinale with a contig N50 of 3.47 Mb, which was clustered into 44 chromosomes across four homologous groups. Comparative genomics analysis revealed that transposable elements have made a significant contribution to its genome evolution, gene copy number variation, and gene regulation and expression, particularly of genes involved in metabolite biosynthesis, stress resistance, and root development. We placed the recent autotetraploidization of R. officinale at ∼0.58 mya and analyzed the genomic features of its homologous chromosomes. Although no dominant monoploid genomes were observed at the overall expression level, numerous allele-differentially-expressed genes were identified, mainly with different transposable element insertions in their regulatory regions, suggesting that they functionally diverged after polyploidization. Combining genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, we explored the contributions of gene family amplification and tetraploidization to the abundant anthraquinone production of R. officinale, as well as gene expression patterns and differences in anthraquinone content among tissues. Our report offers unprecedented genomic resources for fundamental research on the autopolyploid herb R. officinale and guidance for polyploid breeding of herbs.

HPLC fingerprints of polygonum cuspidatum power and polygonum cuspidatum ointment and simultaneous determination of six constituents

Polygonum Cuspidate (P. cuspidatum) is a traditional topical preparation of Chinese medicine. The aim of this study was to develop HPLC fingerprints for P. cuspidatum Powder and P. cuspidatum Ointment, as well as to determine the total stilbene and total anthraquinone contents in them. A XB-C18 column (250 ​mm ​× ​4.6 ​mm, 5 ​μm) was used with a mobile phase consisting of 0.1% phosphoric acid solution-acetonitrile and a gradient elution. The flow rate was 1.0 ​ml/min and the detection wavelength was 286 ​nm. The column temperature was 30 ​°C and injection volume was 10 ​μl. The similarity evaluation system for chromatographic fingerprint of traditional Chinese medicine (2012 edition) was employed to confirm the common peaks at 13 batches of samples and to assess the similarity. The study revealed that 20 common peaks were identified in both P. cuspidatum powder and P. cuspidatum ointment, with a similarity greater than 0.95. Amongst them, seven components were attributed and confirmed, which were identified as polydatin, resveratrol, emodin-8-glucoside, aloe-emodin, rhein, emodin and physcion. Under the established conditions of the chromatography, quantitative analysis of six components could be well separated, and had a good linearity and linear range, the precision, repeatability and stability were good. The method's efficacy in assessing the quality of P. cuspidatum powder and P. cuspidatum ointment is validated, and it can be employed for quality control purposes.

Phytochemical Analysis of the Aerial Part of Golden Dock (&lt;i&gt;Rumex Maritimus&lt;/i&gt; L.)

Introduction. Golden dock (Rumex maritimus L., Polygonaceae) is used as a medicinal and food plant in Asian countries. The plant contains phytochemicals of various classes: flavonoids, tannins, anthraquinones etc. Plant extracts exhibit antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, astringent activity, and have antidiabetic potential. The plant is annual, and most of the biologically active substances accumulate in its aboveground organs. An important problem is the standardization of Rumex maritimus and the development of regulatory documentation for its the introduction to medical practice.Aim. To conduct phytochemical analysis of the aerial part of golden dock.Materials and methods. Air-dried aerial part of Rumex maritimus collected at flowering and beginning of fruiting stage, as well as individual above-ground organs (leaves, flowers, fruits, stems), were used for obtaining the extracts. Qualitative analysis of the extracts was carried out using reverse phase HPLC. The relative content of the components in the mixture was calculated by the method of simple normalization. Total content of free anthraquinones and anthraglycosides in terms of chrysophanic acid was determined using spectrophotometric method after acid hydrolysis. Total tannin content was calculated by titrimetric method.Results and discussion. Flavonoids isoquercetin and avicularin were first discovered in the aerial part of Rumex maritimus. The dominant component of the plant is rutin. Chrysophanol predominates among anthraquinones. The highest concentration of anthraquinones (2.80 ± 0.04 %) was found in flowers. Tannins accumulate mainly in leaves (9.97 ± 0.02 %). A significant amount of tannins (6.60 ± 0.03 %) and anthracene derivatives (1.96 ± 0.03 %) is contained in the whole aerial part.Conclusion. Phytochemical analysis of the aerial part of Rumex maritimus showed the presence of a significant amount of anthraquinones. As a plant raw material it is proposed to use the herb of Rumex maritimus. Standardization is recommended for anthraquinones in terms of chrysophanic acid (at least 1.5 %).

Review on melanosis coli and anthraquinone-containing traditional Chinese herbs that cause melanosis coli.

Backgrounds: The incidence of melanosis coli (MC) has gradually increased annually, attracting significant attention and efforts into this field. A potential risk for MC is the long-term use of anthraquinone laxatives in patients with constipation. Most traditional cathartic drugs are made from herbs containing anthraquinone compounds. This review aims to provide guidance for the application of traditional Chinese herbs containing anthraquinones for physicians and researchers. Materials and methods: We reviewed risk factors and pathogenesis of MC, and natural anthraquinones isolated from TCM herbs. We searched Pubmed and CNKI databases for literature related to MC with keywords such as"traditional Chinese medicine", "Chinese herbs", "anthraquinones", and "melanosis coli". The literature is current to January 2023 when the searches were last completed. After the literature retrieval, the TCM herbs containing anthraquinones (including component identification and anthraquinone content determination) applied in clinical were selected. According to the collected evidence, we provide a list of herbs containing anthraquinones that could cause MC. Results: We identified 20 herbs belonging to 7 families represented by Polygonaceae, Fabaceae, Rhamnaceae, and Rubiaceae, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of MC. Among these, the herbs most commonly used include Dahuang (Rhei Radix et Rhizome), Heshouwu (Radix Polygoni Multiflori), Huzhang (Rhizoma Polygoni Cuspidati), Juemingzi (Semen Cassiae), Luhui (Aloe) and Qiancao (Rubiae Radix et Rhizoma). Conclusion: Due to a lack of awareness of the chemical composition of TCM herbs, many patients with constipation and even some TCM physicians take cathartic herbal remedies containing abundant anthraquinones to relieve defecation disturbances, resulting in long-term dependence on these herbs, which is potentially associated with most cases of MC. When such treatments are prescribed, TCM physicians should avoid long-term use in large doses to reduce their harm on colonic health. Individuals who take healthcare products containing these herbs should also be under the supervision of a doctor.