Alpha-linolenic Acid Content Research Articles

Flax Seed

Flax sed also known as flax oil and linseed oil, is derived from the seeds of the plant Linium usitatissimum. Flax seed oil is a very rich source of alpha-linolenic acid. Alpha-linolenic acid concentration in flaxseed oil ranges from approximately 40 to 60%.lower amounts of linoleic acid and oleic acid (each about 15%) are also present in flaxseed oil.ın addition, flaxseed contains varying amounts of the lignan, secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG).

Effect of flaxseed consumption on central obesity, serum lipids, and adiponectin level in overweight or obese women: A randomised controlled clinical trial

Flaxseed may be beneficial for the management of obesity due to its high content of alpha-linolenic acid, fibre, and lignans. We aim to evaluate the effect of flaxseed consumption on serum lipids, adiponectin, leptin, and anthropometric indices in overweight or obese women. This randomised controlled clinical trial involved 60 overweight or obese women. Participants were randomly allocated into two groups: (a) a balanced diet plus 30g/day milled flaxseed (as treatment group) and (b) a balanced diet plus 30g/day milled rice (as control group). Anthropometric indices, serum lipids, leptin, and adiponectin level were measured at baseline and at the end of intervention after 12weeks. After 12weeks of intervention, there was significantly higher reduction rate in waist circumference (WC) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) (both P<.05) in the flaxseed-consuming group compared with the control group. Moreover, adiponectin level was significantly increased from (12.11±7.1) to (17.15±6.1) in the flaxseed-consuming group compared with the control group from (12.48±4.7) to (12.01±5.8) (P=.002). However, no significant difference was observed in serum lipid level in the study groups before and after the intervention (all P>.05). Flaxseed consumption may improve adiposity markers, such as adiponectin level. Thus, flaxseed consumption could be an adjunctive therapy to attenuate central obesity. Serum lipid profile has not changed meaningfully after flaxseed consumption.

Yogurt Enriched with Isochrysis galbana: An Innovative Functional Food.

Microalgae are a valuable and innovative emerging source of natural nutrients and bioactive compounds that can be used as functional ingredients in order to increase the nutritional value of foods to improve human health and to prevent disease. The marine microalga Isochrysis galbana has great potential for the food industry as a functional ingredient, given its richness in ω3 long chain-polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs), with high contents of oleic, linoleic, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), stearidonic, and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids. This study focuses on the formulation of a functional food by the incorporation of 2% (w/w) of I. galbana freeze-dried biomass and 2% (w/w) of I. galbana ethyl acetate lipidic extract in solid natural yogurts preparation. In the functional yogurt enriched with microalgal biomass, the ω3 LC-PUFA’s content increased (to 60 mg/100 g w/w), specifically the DHA content (9.6 mg/100 g ww), and the ω3/ω6 ratio (augmented to 0.8). The in vitro digestion study showed a poor bioaccessibility of essential ω3 LC-PUFAs, wherein linoleic acid (18:2 ω6) presented a bioaccessibility inferior to 10% and no DHA or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) was detected in the bioaccessible fraction of the functional yogurts, thus indicating a low accessibility of lipids during digestion. Notwithstanding, when compared to the original yogurt, an added value novel functional yogurt with DHA and a higher ω3 LC-PUFAs content was obtained. The functional yogurt enriched with I. galbana can be considered important from a nutritional point of view and a suitable source of essential FAs in the human diet. However, this needs further confirmation, entailing additional investigation into bioavailability through in vivo assays.

Responses of Alpha-linolenic acid strain (C-12) from Chlorella sp. L166 to low temperature plasma treatment

LTP treatment was applied to induce a high-content alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) strain (C-12) from Chlorella sp. L166, the ALA content of C-12 was increased by 48.37%. The mechanism of LTP induction were examined. The results showed that LTP could facilitate pH change, induce malondialdehyde (MDA) production, cause protein leakage, and destroyed the microalgae cells. The genes of C-12 encoding pyruvate dehydrogenase (E2) were up-regulated 2.47-fold, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) down-regulated 0.48-fold compared to the wild type, these changed in the direction of ALA accumulation. Furthermore, the enzymes in DNA replication were significantly up regulated. Take ALA and biomass accumulation into account, LTP technology had a positive effect on ALA accumulation. Global view of metabolic variation also suggested that C-12 had an excellent adaptability to the changes of pH and peroxidation of LTP production. C-12 could be a promising ALA source of alternative materials for it do not compete with land.

An Attempt to Enrich Pig Meat with Omega-3 Fatty Acids Using Linseed Oil Ethyl Ester Diet Supplement

This study aims to evaluate an effect of pig diet supplementation with ethyl esters derived from linseed oil with a high content of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) on the fatty acids profile of meat. The study was conducted on Polish Landrace fatteners supplemented for a period of 7 weeks (control and experimental groups of 8 animals each, 16 in total). After this period, loin (Longissimus dorsi) and ham (Biceps femoris) samples were collected for laboratory analysis, including basic composition (fat, protein, ash, dry matter) and fatty acids (FAs) profile. The supplementation caused a significant increase in the level of ALA acid, decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), increase in unsaturated FAs level, and resulting decrease in the ratio of n-6/n-3. The indices of atherogenicity and thrombogenicity were beneficially altered in the experimental groups. It can thus be supposed that meat enriched this way may be considered as an interesting choice for consumers who are aware of the importance of diet consumed.

Statement on additional scientific evidence in relation to the essential composition of total diet replacement for weight control.

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to revise the Opinion on the essential composition of total diet replacements for weight control (TDRs) regarding the minimum content of linoleic acid (LA) and alpha‐linolenic acid (ALA) and the maximum content of magnesium (Mg). Through a comprehensive literature search, human studies were retrieved reporting on LA and ALA concentrations in adipose tissue (AT), on weight loss and gallstone formation following TDR consumption and on diarrhoea after supplemental Mg intake. The distribution of the amount of LA and ALA release from AT during weight loss when consuming TDRs was estimated using statistical simulations. Using the fifth percentile, the coverage of the adequate intake (AI) for both FA was estimated. For the risk of developing diarrhoea when consuming TDRs with an Mg content of 350 mg/day, four cross‐over studies using 360–368 mg Mg/day were reviewed. The Panel concludes that (1) there is no need to add LA to TDRs, as the amount released from AT during weight loss when consuming TDRs is sufficient to cover the AI for LA; (2) a minimum of 0.8 g/day ALA is needed in TDRs in order to meet the AI for ALA; (3) the minimum fat content of TDRs of 20 g/day as derived in the Panel's previous opinion is proposed to be maintained until the availability of further evidence, given the considerable uncertainty as to the amount of fat required for reducing the risk of gallstone formation; and (4) the likelihood that Mg‐induced diarrhoea occurs at a severity that may be considered of concern for overweight and obese individuals consuming TDRs is low when the total maximum Mg content in TDRs is 350 mg/day.

Atherosclerosis Development and Aortic Contractility in Hypercholesterolemic Rabbits Supplemented with Two Different Flaxseed Varieties.

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is widely regarded as the main beneficial component of flax for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. We evaluated the effect of the transgenic flaxseed W86—which is rich in ALA—on the lipid profile, atherosclerosis progression, and vascular reactivity in hypercholesterolemic rabbits compared to the parental cultivar Linola with a very low ALA content. Rabbits were fed a basal diet (control) or a basal diet supplemented with 1% cholesterol, 1% cholesterol and 10% flaxseed W86, or 1% cholesterol and 10% Linola flaxseed. A high-cholesterol diet resulted in an elevated plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels compared to the control animals. Aortic sections from rabbits fed Linola had lower deposits of foamy cells than those from rabbits fed W86. A potassium-induced and phenylephrine-induced contractile response was enhanced by a high-cholesterol diet and not influenced by the W86 or Linola flaxseed. Pretreatment of the aortic rings with nitro-L-arginine methyl ester resulted in a concentration-dependent tendency to increase the reaction amplitude in the control and high-cholesterol diet groups but not the flaxseed groups. Linola flaxseed with a low ALA content more effectively reduced the atherosclerosis progression compared with the W86 flaxseed with a high concentration of stable ALA. Aorta contractility studies suggested that flaxseed ameliorated an increased contractility in hypercholesterolemia but had little or no impact on NO synthesis in the vascular wall.

Влияние на добавянето на сух дестилиран розов цвят в дажбата върху качеството на месото при некастрирани мъжки прасета

The objective of this study was to assess the effect of addition of phytonutrients from dry distilled rose petals (DDRP) in the feed on the meat quality and boar taint of entire male pigs. A total of 30 male 146 days old pigs from Danube white breed with an average body weight of 67 kg were allocated to one of the three groups – control (castrated male pigs - C), entire male pigs (EM), and EM fed with addition of 5 g of DDRP in 1 kg of feed (EM+R). At the age of 186 days and average live weight of 109 kg, the pigs were slaughtered and samples of m. Longissimus lumborum (LL) were subjected to analysis of meat quality characteristics (pH 45 min, pH 24 h, water holding capacity (WHC), L*a*b*c* colour space), proximate composition of the meat, fatty acid composition, androstenon and skatole content. The results showed that sex category had much more influence on the investigated traits than DDRP. The two groups ЕМ pigs presented lower backfat content (P<0.001), lower intramuscular fat content (P<0.001) and higher lean meat percentage (P<0.01) in LL muscle, compared to C group. An increase in the n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids proportion and especially the content of alpha-linolenic acid, and intensity of meat colouring in the intact males, in comparison to castrated males, were found. The boar taint detected in the meat showed a trend of decreasing in the group consuming dry distilled rose petals.

Formulation of Vegan Health Beverage using Coconut Milk and Fortifying it with Flaxseed Oil

Coconut milk is a vegan beverage and its fortification with flaxseed oil is an approach towards filling the nutritional gap of ω-3 fatty acids in vegan/vegetarian diets. Various formulations of coconut milk beverage were devised including variations in coconut meat: water ratios, guar gum concentration as stabilizer, sugar concentration (table sugar and zero-sugar sweetener) and flaxseed oil concentration and flavor (cardamom and coffee) concentration. The optimum level for these concentrations was analyzed through sensory evaluation at each step. Homogenization conditions (RPM value and time of homogenization) were optimized for flaxseed oil in milk. The alpha-linolenic acid content retained in the beverage was analyzed using Gas chromatography technique while camera microscopy was used to determine the emulsion stability, each day, when samples were stored in refrigeration for 5 days. The fortified milk was oxidatively stable and sensorially acceptable.

Effects of Sesame Seed Oil (Black /White) as a Natural Antioxidant on the Oxidative and Frying Stability of Linseed Oil

Aims: In today's scenario, the oil industry is striving for natural and newly synthesized bioactive compounds due to their distinct nutritional, safety and health benefits over chemically synthesized antioxidants. Sesame seeds are conventionally perceived as the wealthy source of bioactive lignans. Both water-soluble and oil-soluble lignans in sesame oil (SO) and sesame cake have been proclaimed to have therapeutic benefits on humans. On the contrary, linseed oil (LO) due to its high concentration of alpha-linolenic acid is prone to oxidation. To enhance the oxidative stability index (OSI) shelf life of LO, optimal formulations and admixtures of bioactive components with different mechanisms were studied.&#x0D; Study Design: Different combinations of oil bends were prepared using SO and LO and the quality characteristics were compared with the pure oils.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Centre for Rural development and technology, Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi, Delhi (India)&#x0D; Methodology: Physical and biochemical analysis for the oil blends and pure oils were done. Along with that sensory and shelf life analysis of the fried products were also done using standard procedures.&#x0D; Results: The oxidative stability of all the oil blends and pure oils were measured at 110°C, 120°C and 130°C. Out of all the ratios, 50:50 wt/wt of LO, WSO, BSO and their blends were exposed to deep fat frying. After frying blends were evaluated for physical and biochemical analysis. Fried potato chips were evaluated for its sensory attributes, moisture loss and fat absorption.&#x0D; Conclusion: It is proposed that the OSI of LO was upgraded by blending. No significant changes were observed in the FTIR and SF/USF acid ratios of the blends and pure oils throughout the frying days implicit satisfying OSI. Sensory attributes, moisture loss and fat absorption exhibit no significant differences between potato chips fried in WSO, BSO and blends BSO: LO, WSO: LO over 5 days of frying.

Abstract 13690: Association of Serum Fatty Acids With Age at the Onset of Acute Ischemic Stroke in Patients Aged 50 Years or Older

Introduction: There are few reports about the association of concentrations and proportions of serum fatty acids with age at the onset of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) in elderly patients. Hypothesis: A higher level of saturated FA (SFA) and n-6 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) cause a younger onset of AIS, and a higher level of n-3 PUFA causes an older onset of AIS. Methods: For the retrospective cross-sectional study, we included patients aged 50 years or older who: 1) were admitted to our institution between August 2016 and July 2019 within 24 hours of AIS onset, and 2) underwent an examination of serum fatty acids. We evaluated concentrations of palmitic acid (PA) and stearic acid (SA) as SFA, oleic acid (OlA) as n-9 PUFA, linoleic acid (LiA), dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), arachidonic acid (AA) as n-6 PUFA on admission. We evaluated the concentration of alpha-linolenic acid (AlA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as n-3 PUFA on admission. We evaluated the proportion of PA, SA, OlA, LiA, DGLA, AA, AlA, EPA, and DHA on admission. Furthermore, we evaluated their correlations with age at the AIS onset. Results: Three hundred sixty-six patients met our inclusion criteria. Their median average age was 75 years. Age at the onset was negatively correlated with concentrations of PA, SA, OlA, LiA, DGLA, AA, and AlA. Age at the onset was negatively correlated with the proportion of SA, OlA, and DGLA and positively correlated with the proportion of EPA and DHA. Multiple regression analysis showed that DGLA was an independent factor for the younger onset of AIS. Multiple regression analysis showed that DHA proportion was an independent factor for the older onset and that proportions of SA and DGLA were independent factors for the younger onset of AIS. Conclusions: The higher proportion of SA (SFA) and higher concentration and proportion of DGLA (n-6 PUFA) were significantly correlated with the younger onset of AIS, and the higher proportion of DHA (n-3 PUFA) was significantly correlated with the older onset of AIS.

CDC Melyn yellow seed coat oilseed flax

CDC Melyn is a yellow seed coat oilseed flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), registered in 2016 by the Crop Development Centre, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada. This cultivar has a yield (106%) comparable to the cultivar AC Nugget (the yield standard for yellow seed coat oilseed flax) and a maturity rating equal to Flanders. It has a medium (46.6%) oil content, iodine value (199.4), alpha-linolenic acid content (61%), and a 1000-seed weight of 5.0 g. It is immune to flax rust caused by Melampsora lini (Ehrenb.) Thüm. and moderately resistant to wilt and powdery mildew caused by Fusarium oxysporum Schltdl. f. sp. lini (Bolley) W.C. Snyder &amp; H.N. Hansen and Oidium lini, respectively.

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Is a Potential Food Supplement with the Capacity to Outperform Chlorella and Spirulina

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a green microalgae used as a model organism associated with biotechnological applications, yet its nutritional value has not been assessed. This study investigates the nutritional capacity of C. reinhardtii as an additional value for this species beyond its known potential in biofuels and bio-products production. The composition of key nutrients in C. reinhardtii was compared with Chlorella and Spirulina, the species widely regarded as a superfood. The results revealed that the protein content of C. reinhardtii (46.9%) was comparable with that of Chlorella (45.3) and Spirulina (50.4%) on a dry weight basis. C. reinhardtii contained all the essential amino acids with good scores based on FAO/WHO values (0.9–1.9) as in Chlorella and Spirulina. Unsaturated fatty acids predominated the total fatty acids profile of C. reinhardtii were ~74 of which ~48% are n-3 fatty acids. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) content in C. reinhardtii (42.4%) was significantly higher than that of Chlorella (23.4) and Spirulina (0.12%). For minerals, Spirulina was rich in iron (3.73 mg/g DW) followed by Chlorella (1.34 mg/g DW) and C. reinhardtii (0.96 mg/g DW). C. reinhardtii, unlike the other two species, consisted of selenium (10 µg/g DW), and had a remarkably lower heavy metal load. Moreover, C. reinhardtii contained relatively high concentrations of chlorophyll (a + b) and total carotenoids (28.6 mg/g DW and 6.9 mg/g DW, respectively) compared with Chlorella (12.0 mg/g DW and 1.8 mg/g DW, respectively) and Spirulina (8.6 mg/g DW and 0.8 mg/g DW, respectively). This study confirms that, based on its nutrient credentials, C. reinhardtii has great potential as a new superfood or ingredient for a food supplement.

Cardioprotective Effects of Dietary Flaxseed Post-Infarction Are Associated with Changes in MicroRNA Expression.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs/miRs) such as miR-1, miR-133a, miR-133b, miR-135a, and miR-29b play a key role in many cardiac pathological remodeling processes, including apoptosis, fibrosis, and arrhythmias, after a myocardial infarction (MI). Dietary flaxseed has demonstrated a protective effect against an MI. The present study was carried out to test the hypothesis that dietary flaxseed supplementation before and after an MI regulates the expression of above-mentioned miRNAs to produce its cardioprotective effect. Animals were randomized after inducing MI by coronary artery ligation into: (a) sham MI with normal chow, (b) MI with normal chow, and (c–e) MI supplemented with either 10% milled flaxseed, or 4.4% flax oil enriched in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or 0.44% flax lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside. The feeding protocol consisted of 2 weeks before and 8 weeks after the surgery. Dietary flax oil supplementation selectively upregulated the cardiac expression of miR-133a, miR-135a, and miR-29b. The levels of collagen I expression were reduced in the flax oil group. We conclude that miR-133a, miR-135a, and miR-29b are sensitive to dietary flax oil, likely due to its rich ALA content. The cardioprotective effect of flaxseed in an MI could be due to modulation of these miRNAs.

Biorefined grass-clover protein composition and effect on organic broiler performance and meat fatty acid profile.

Protein extracted from green biomass can be a sustainable and valuable feed component for organic poultry production. Earlier studies in rats have shown high digestibility of laboratory-scale extracted protein. The aim of this study was to test the effect of upscaling the biorefining process on composition of protein extracted from organic grass-clover and on performance of organic broilers when including grass-clover in the feed. Crude protein content of the extracted grass-clover protein was 36.2% of dry matter (DM) with a higher methionine content, but lower lysine and total sulphur-containing amino acids than that in soybean. Acid-insoluble residue constituted a major fraction of the dietary fibre content, and a large proportion of total CP was bound in this fraction. Alpha-linolenic acid was the dominating fatty acid in the extracted grass-clover protein. One-day-old organic Colour Yield broiler chicks were included in a dose-response trial with grass-clover protein constituting 0%, 8%, 16% or 24% of the feed from day 12 and until slaughter at day 57. Increasing levels of grass-clover protein extract reduced feed intake, growth and slaughter weight; however, at 8% inclusion feed intake and performance were not affected. The fatty acid composition in broiler breast meat reflected the composition of grass-clover protein extract; thus, the increasing dietary addition increased meat alpha-linolenic acid content. A lowered tocopherol content in meat from broilers fed increasing grass-clover protein demonstrated the need for increased amounts of antioxidants due to the high content of unsaturated fat. In conclusion, the study shows that broilers can grow on grass-clover protein from an upscaled biorefining process, but highlights the importance of further optimisation with focus on increased protein content and on avoiding formation of insoluble protein complexes, as these most likely reduce protein digestibility.

Consumption of flaxseed enhances poly unsaturated fatty acids in broiler meat

Manipulation of fatty acids of poultry meat to reduce heart related disorders has become focus of attention in modern life style. A total of 160 day-old broiler chicks were distributed into four groups. All the chicks were fed on commercial ration for 4 weeks and provided flaxseed (FS) at the rate of 0 (FS–0), 10 FS–10), 15 (FS–15) and 20% (FS–20) in the feed. Myristic, palmitic, stearic and archidic acids were reduced (P&lt;0.05) when flaxseed level was increased. Lowest (P&lt;0.05) concentration of palmitoleic, oleic, myrestoleic and eruccic acids were recorded in meat from group supplemented with higher amount of flaxseed (FS–20). Linoleic, alpha linolenic, gamma linolenic, eicosatrienoic, eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content of broiler meat increased (P&lt;0.05) with increasing the amount of flaxseed in broiler feed. Arachidonic acid decreased significantly (P&lt;0.05) in response to flaxseed supplementation in broiler feed. Total omega-6 fatty acids also increased (P&lt;0.05) with higher supplementation of broiler feed with flaxseed. Flaxseed may be supplemented in broiler ration up to 10% for decreasing saturated and mono saturated fatty acids (MSFAs) and increasing poly unsaturated fatty acids (PSFAs) in broiler meat without affecting feed intake, weight gain, and feed conversion ratio.

Development of Perilla Cultivar ‘Sodam’ with High Alpha-linolenic Acid Content and Upright Growth with Narrow Branch Angle for Edible Seeds

Development of Perilla Cultivar ‘Sodam’ with High Alpha-linolenic Acid Content and Upright Growth with Narrow Branch Angle for Edible Seeds

Differential Metabolic Impact of Natural Food-Grade Emulsifiers Rich in Alpha-Linolenic Acid

Abstract Objectives Dietary synthetic emulsifiers have recently been shown to promote metabolic syndrome and considerably alter gut microbiota. Conversely, natural emulsifiers such as milk polar lipids (PL) are associated with beneficial metabolic effects. The effects of plant PL remain, however, poorly described. Our objective was to evaluate, using two complimentary rodent models, the impact of nutritional doses of lecithin (≤10%) of vegetal sources alternative to soy on gut microbiota, postprandial lipid metabolism, and the bioavailability of an essential plant lipid, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). Methods For 5 days, male Swiss mice (n = 60) were fed normolipidic diets (identical ALA content) containing 0, 1, 3 or 10% rapeseed lecithin (RL) or 10% soy lecithin. Following an overnight fast, the mice were force-fed the same oil mix and euthanised after 90 min. As a mechanistic study, male Wistar rats (n = 30) with mesenteric duct cannulation were fed 5 oil mixtures containing 0 to 20% RL. Lymph fractions were collected up to 6 h post-gavage. Plasma and lymph lipid composition was determined using GC-FID, chylomicron (CM) size using light-scattering spectroscopy, and intestinal gene expression and faecal microbiota composition by RT-qPCR. Results In mice, the consumption of lecithin significantly increased levels of faecal Clostridium leptum (P &amp;lt; 0.001), regardless of lecithin origin or dose. The partial replacement of oil with lecithin did not significantly alter plasma total lipids nor the expression of genes of intestinal lipid absorption. The percentage of ALA in plasma triglycerides was significantly higher in the 10% RL group compared to other groups (P &amp;lt; 0.05). In rats, RL significantly and dose-dependently increased the rate of appearance (P &amp;lt; 0.01) and concentration of ALA in lymph (P &amp;lt; 0.01). 20% RL additionally increased CM size and expression of genes of CM secretion (Mttp, Sar1b; P &amp;lt; 0.05). Conclusions Our results reveal that, whereas both rapeseed and soy lecithin improved gut microbiota composition by increasing the anti-inflammatory Clostridium leptum bacterial group, only rapeseed lecithin enhanced ALA bioavailability. This study illustrates the importance of considering the use of natural emulsifiers, especially rapeseed lecithin, as plant-based food ingredients with potential health benefits. Funding Sources ANRT and UMT ACTIA BALI.

Evidence That Forage-Fed Cows Can Enhance Milk Quality

Researching the distinguishing factors of nutritional milk quality is key to sustainable production and addresses increasing media and scientific scrutiny regarding human health effects and ecological impacts of dairy products. Modern Western diets have high omega-6 relative to omega-3 fatty acid (FA) consumption. This ratio in milk can be manipulated by management practices; increasing forage in dairy diets raises omega-3 in milk. Whilst studies identify higher concentrations of nutritionally beneficial FAs in organic dairy, milk from 100% forage-fed cows in the UK has not been investigated. This study explores differences in FA composition between supermarket conventional and organic and Pasture for Life Association (PFLA) milk, collected in April, July and October, 2017. PFLA milk had higher concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid (+94%) and omega-3 (+92%) than conventional milk. Additionally, concentrations of palmitic acid (+11%), omega-6 (+69%) and the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 (+201%) were higher in conventional than PFLA milk. PFLA milk had higher concentrations of alpha-linolenic acid (+39%), conjugated linoleic acid (+30%) and omega-3 (+21%) and lower concentrations of omega-6 (−36%) and a lower ratio of omega-6/omega-3 (−44%) than organic milk. This supports previous studies and demonstrates the scope to improve milk FA profiles further for potential health benefits through pasture-based management.

Effects of energy and essential fatty acids content in breast milk on infant's head dimensions.

Essential fatty acids (EFA), including linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), are indispensable for proper brain growth especially in the first months after birth when it develops most rapidly. Since fats, especially EFA, in breast milk are highly variable between mothers, we indirectly examined whether milk energy, LA and ALA content in breast milk affect volume and shape of the infant's head. The study encompassed 60 mothers and their healthy term-born infants between the third and sixth month of lactation. The percentage of macronutrients and dry matter in human milk samples was assessed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and LA and ALA concentrations in breast milk were determined using gas chromatography (GC). Infant head measurements were taken using standard anthropometric equipment and methods. LA content in breast milk was found to be positively associated with head volume in boys. Furthermore, ALA content was positively associated with the head height-to-length ratio thus with more arched head in infants irrespective of sex. No relationship was found between milk energy content in mothers' milk and infant head dimensions. This is the first study to demonstrate a relationship between EFA concentration in human milk and infant head dimensions. Given that LA and ALA in human milk are variable in women and due to the extremely rapid growth of nerve tissue in the first months of life, adequate supply of EFA in breast milk should attract the attention of public health sciences.