Vegetable Oil Content Research Articles

Diacylglycerol Acetyltransferase Gene Isolated from Euonymus europaeus L. Altered Lipid Metabolism in Transgenic Plant towards the Production of Acetylated Triacylglycerols.

Euonymus species from the Celastraceae family are considered as a source of unusual genes modifying the oil content and fatty acid composition of vegetable oils. Due to the possession of genes encoding enzyme diacylglycerol acetyltransferase (DAcT), Euonymus plants can synthesize and accumulate acetylated triacyglycerols. The gene from Euonymus europaeus (EeDAcT) encoding the DAcT was identified, isolated, characterized, and modified for cloning and genetic transformation of plants. This gene has a unique nucleotide sequence and amino acid composition, different from orthologous genes from other Euonymus species. Nucleotide sequence of original EeDAcT gene was modified, cloned into transformation vector, and introduced into tobacco plants. Overexpression of EeDAcT gene was confirmed, and transgenic host plants produced and accumulated acetylated triacylglycerols (TAGs) in immature seeds. Individual transgenic plants showed difference in amounts of synthesized acetylTAGs and also in fatty acid composition of acetylTAGs.

Analyses of the brominated vegetable oil in soft drinks using gas chromatography–flame ionization detector and atmospheric pressure gas chromatography–quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Herein, a new method for quantifying the brominated vegetable oil content in commercial soft drinks was developed, which accelerated the sample preparation process and improved analytical efficiency. First, simple and accurate chromatographic separation techniques were performed using a VF-5ht column for both GC-FID (quantitative) and APGC-QTOF (qualitative) analyses. The samples were subjected to chromatography on a reversed-phase solid-phase extraction cartridge. (PoraPak™RxnRP). Transesterification using a boron trifluoride methanol complex in methanol solution was performed. When validating this method, the analyte recovery percentages were between 82.2% and 99.9%, and the recovery and standard deviation of repeatability values were between 1.2% and 3.5%. Using an isotope library, the bromostearic acid methyl esters (9,10-dibromostearic acid methyl ester, 9,10,12,13-tetrabromostearic acid methyl ester, and hexabromostearic acid methyl ester) in the sample mixtures were qualitatively confirmed via APGC-QTOF. A novel aqueous ammonium adduct, which has not been previously reported, was also confirmed. These results indicated that this new method was simple, accurate, and also allowed for precise qualitative and quantitative confirmation as well as high reproducibility.

The New Test Procedure for Group-Type Composition of Base Oils of Lubricating Oils, Especially Emitted into the Environment

Mineral base oil, a product of multistep fine refining of the relevant fractions from vacuum distillation of crude oil, is a main component of so-called mineral lubricating oils containing aliphatic and alicyclic substituted aromatic hydrocarbons, i.e., derivatives of benzene and biphenyl. Mineral lubricating oil is composed mostly of mineral base oil and a low amount of enriching additives, most often products of advanced organic chemical technology. The application of mineral lubricating oils in open cutting systems has a very negative impact on environment and on the operator’s health. This work presents a simple, cheap and fast methodology allows identification of the group-type composition of base oil in lubricating oil and to estimate the content or total absence of base oil of mineral and vegetable origin in lubricating oil. The first step of the test is an in-situ screening for fluorescence of petroleum fraction under the 365 nm light. The next is the performance of infrared spectra with Fourier transformation (FT-MIR) to identify and estimate the content of vegetable oil and its derivatives and the performance of UV-Vis spectra to identify and determine the content of aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as dyes present in the lubricating oil. The last stage is normal phase thin layer chromatography (NP-TLC) using different visualization methods to evaluate the group-type composition of lubricating oil. Effectivity of the developed procedure has been confirmed during control of group-type composition evaluation of lubricating oils in cutting systems. The procedure can be also applied with respect to different oil matrices.

ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ ВПЛИВУ ВМІСТУ РОСЛИННОЇ ОЛІЇ НА ВЛАСТИВОСТІ ПОЛІМЕРНИХ КОМПОЗИТНИХ МАТЕРІАЛІВ

При виконанні даної роботи представлено оцінювання можливості використання великої кількості (по відношенню до маси наповнювача) відходів харчової промисловості для модифікування мінеральних наповнювачів та пластифікації полімерів, їх подальшого застосування для одержання наповнених полімерних композитів, а також визначення впливу модифікованих наповнювачів на фізико-механічні

MCT Oil Coating Improves the Oxidative Stability of Surface Lipids in Corn Extrudates

AbstractLipid‐containing extrudates are highly susceptible to lipid oxidation because of their porous structure and high specific surface area. The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of a low‐oxidizable medium‐chain triglycerides (MCT) coating on the oxidative stability. Therefore, cornmeal is extrusion cooked with commercial vegetable oil and various water contents (10–18% on dry matter) and partially coated with 5% w/w MCT oil. Lipid oxidation in the extrudates is examined during storage at +40 °C by measuring hydroperoxide concentrations in different lipid fractions (surface, inner‐surface, and matrix‐incorporated lipids). Hexanal is analyzed using headspace‐gas chromatography. Coating allocation is studied by fatty acid profiles of the lipid fractions, by fluorescence microscopy, and computerized microtomography. Application of an MCT coating leads to lower hydroperoxide concentrations and significantly reduces hexanal formation during storage. In particular, the surface lipids are stabilized. MCT oil diffuse only to small extent inside the extrudates and its effect on lipid oxidation can be attributed to differenct effects: filling surface microcracks, reducing the release of volatiles, and dilution of oxidizable lipids. This effect is strongest in porous extrudates with low feed‐water content.Practical applications: Inhibition of lipid oxidation of fatty extrudates is of great importance for producers as well as consumers. In this study, we examine whether it is possible to improve the oxidative stability of extrudates by application of a lipid‐based coating. The results of this study suggest that it will be possible in the future to produce extrudates that are protected from oxidation by a thin natural oil film. We expect that especially products such as kibbles could benefit from treatment with a low‐oxidizable lipid‐based coating. In these products, fats are already used in combination with other functional ingredients. The combination of an MCT coating with a palatant or antioxidant is, therefore, an obvious alternative and of high relevance for manufacturers.

Implications of blended Mesua ferrea Linn oil on performance, combustion and emissions of compression ignition diesel engines

This study is focused on exploring the utilization of non-edible straight vegetable oil, derived from the seed of Mesua ferrea Linn, to supplement the fuel requirement of a stationary compression ignition (CI) diesel engine, through blending with the diesel. Three vegetable oil (VO) blends VO10, VO20 and VO30 having 10, 20 and 30% VO by volume have been used in the experimental investigation. The experiments are conducted in a single-cylinder, four-stroke, water cooled, naturally aspirated, direct injection, variable compression ratio CI engine. The study reveals a reduction in the brake thermal of efficiency (BTE) and increase in brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) with the use of VO blends. The emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) also increase with the increase in the content of VO in the blend, while oxides of nitrogen (NOx) decreases with blending. The VO10 shows a comparable performance with that of the diesel in the CI engine. The maximum drop in the BTE of VO10 is found to be 1.78%; while CO and NOx emissions are found to be lower in comparison to that of diesel.

Phytosterols Content in Vegetable Oils of Brazil: Coconut, Safflower, Linseed and Evening Primrose

Abstract In the last years phytosterols, natural components of plants, have received more attention due to association of their consumption with reducing risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. There are several scientific studies about phytosterols in vegetable oils, but they are scarce in unconventional oils. The objective of this research was evaluating the content of phytosterols (β-sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol) in vegetable oils sold in Sao Paulo city, in Brazil. The analysis included cold alkaline saponification, derivatization with hexamethyldisilazane and trimethylchlorosilane reagents, and quantification by gas chromatography using flame ionization detection and internal standardization. The quality control parameters indicated that the method was suitable for analysis. Total sterols were between 272.3 mg kg-1 (coconut oil) to 6169.7 mg kg-1 (evening primrose oil). β-sitosterol was the component found in higher concentrations and evening primrose oil was the most representative in quantity of phytosterols.

An indirect analytical approach based on ATR-FTIR spectroscopy for determining the FFA content in vegetable oils.

In this study, we developed a novel approach for determining a free fatty acid (FFA) in vegetable oils using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. FFA was converted to carboxylate species by a reaction with phthalimide potassium salt, and the linear relationship between FFA content and ATR-FTIR peak areas at 1541–1616 cm−1 (1595 cm−1 as baseline) was established. Results showed that the R2 values obtained during calibration and validation were more than 0.99. The calibration method concurred to within ±0.035% over the range of 0.4% to 4.0% (quantitative determination of the percentage of FFA in oils, expressed as the percentage of oleic acid). In the calibration model, the root mean square error of prediction was 0.0104, the relative error was less than 0.246% and the relative average deviation was 0.386%, respectively. These indexes demonstrated that the calibration model has great accuracy, high precision and good stability. The indirect method established using ATR-FTIR has the advantages of excellent reproducibility, high exactitude, independent of oil type, simple operation and easy cleaning of the instrument surface. The slope of the verification equation between FFA prediction values and American Oil Chemists' Society's (AOCS) titration method was close to 1, R2 value was more than 0.99. These indicators suggested that the proposed method and the AOCS method have a good correlation through AOCS titration and ATR–FTIR spectroscopy to determine validation samples parallel. In addition, for comparison, when the AOCS titration and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy methods were used for sample validation, the results indicated that the latter method is more reproducible, highly sensitive and has strong anti-disturbance. Therefore, the ATR-FTIR technique can be applied as a simple, highly sensitive, convenient and timely method for the analysis of FFAs in oils.

Natural Variation in Fatty Acid Composition of Diverse World Soybean Germplasms Grown in China

Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) is one of the most important crops in the world. Its major content of vegetable oil made it widely used for human consumption and several food industries. To investigate the variation in seed fatty acid composition of soybeans from different origins, a set of 633 soybean accessions originated from four diverse germplasm collections—including China, United States of America (USA), Japan, and Russia—were grown in three locations, Beijing, Anhui, and Hainan for two years. The results showed significant differences (P < 0.001) among the four germplasm origins for all fatty acid contents investigated. Higher levels, on average, of palmitic acid (PA) and linolenic acid (LNA) were observed in Russian germplasm (12.31% and 8.15%, respectively), whereas higher levels of stearic acid (SA) and oleic acid (OA) were observed in Chinese germplasm (3.95% and 21.95%, respectively). The highest level of linoleic acid (LA) was noticed in the USA germplasm accessions (56.34%). The largest variation in fatty acid composition was found in LNA, while a large variation was observed between Chinese and USA germplasms for LA level. Maturity group (MG) significantly (P < 0.0001) affected all fatty acids and higher levels of PA, SA, and OA were observed in early maturing accessions, while higher levels of LA and LNA were observed in late maturing accessions. The trends of fatty acids concentrations with different MG in this study further provide an evidence of the importance of MG in breeding for such soybean seed components. Collectively, the unique accessions identified in this study can be used to strengthen the soybean breeding programs for meeting various human nutrition patterns around the globe.

Rola tłuszczu w żywieniu człowieka

Along with proteins and carbohydrates, fat is one of the three most important components of the human diet. For years, it was recommended that the intake of fats should be as low as possible due to their high calorific value. It is currently assumed that 30-35% of dietary energy should come from fat as it is a source of many bioactive compounds, such as essential unsaturated fatty acids (EUFAs), antioxidants and vitamins (A, D, E, K), which must be delivered to the body with food. Their content in vegetable fats and oils varies greatly, and the existing consumer opinions and beliefs often contradict scientific knowledge. Currently, a large body of evidence supporting the important role of fats in the human diet may be found in literature. This paper discusses the basic components of vegetable fats and oils in terms of their chemical structure and biological properties. A wide range of dietary fats were reviewed for their fatty acid, tocopherol and sterol profiles. Based on these facts, criteria to be taken into account in the selection of dietary fats and food products were identified.

Phenol Content and Antioxidant and Antiaging Activity of Safflower Seed Oil (Carthamus Tinctorius L.)

The phenol content of vegetable oil and its antioxidant activity are of primary interest for human health. Oilseed species are considered important sources of these compounds with medicinal effects on a large scale. Total phenol content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AA) of safflower oil were previously studied. Nevertheless, there is no report on genotypic differences and antiaging activity of safflower oil. The aim of this study was to determine the TPC, diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and antiaging activity on three respective accessions from Syria, France, and Algeria of seed oil of safflower grown under semi-arid conditions during 3 consecutive years (2015, 2016, and 2017). The results showed that phenol content as well as antioxidant and antiaging activity varied according to both genotype and years. In 2017, the mean value of TPC in oil seed was two times higher than in 2015 and 2016. Moreover, accessions presented different TPC values depending on the year. The highest antioxidant activity was observed among accessions in 2017 compared to 2015 and 2016. As expected, a positive correlation was found between TPC and antioxidant activity. The inhibition in the collagenase assay was between 47% and 72.1% compared to the positive control (83.1%), while inhibition in the elastase assay of TPC ranged from 32.2% to 70.3%, with the positive control being 75.8%. These results highlight the interest of safflower oil as a source of phenols with valuable antioxidant and antiaging activity, and uses for cosmetics.

Дослідження жирнокислотного складу м’ясних паштетів та їх стійкості до окиснення

The purpose. To study fat-acid content of meat pastes, enriched with corn, linen flour, their mixture, and also coupages of oils (corn, linen, sunflower). Methods. Study of fat-acid content of vegetable oils, their coupages and model meat pastes were carried out using method of gas chromatography on a device «Kupol». Oxidation level of fat was determined using method based on oxidation of monohydroiodide acid by peroxides which contain in fat, with the subsequent titration of the secreted iodine by thiosulphate of sodium. Quality of meat and meat food during storage was evaluated on accumulation of by-products of oxidative spoilage of fat which react with 2-thiobarbituric acid. Object of probes were samples of meat pastes produced in industrial conditions which formulas included semifat pork, premium beef, chicken liver, corn flour, linen flour, or their mixtures, coupages of vegetable oils (sunflower, linen, corn). Results. They studied fat-acid content of meat pastes, enriched by corn, linen flour, their mixture, and also coupages of oils. It was established that use of the specified vegetable components increased the content of polynonsaturated fatty acids in finished products in 1,6–1,7 times as compared to check samples. That significally influenced ratio t-6 and --3 fatty acids within the limits of (9,8–11,0):1,0. They also fixed that in structure of protein there were all essential amino acids, their general amount in the probed samples was on 1,3–3,1% above, than in control. Biological value of meat pastes was determined. It was established that meat pastes with vegetable components possess a higher biological value in comparison with check samples on 7,3–9,3%. Conclusions. The opportunity is established of adjustment fat-acid content of meat pastes for feed of children of preschool and school age by introduction in formulas of different kinds of flour and vegetable oils.

The vegetable oil in the production of polymers and plastics; an effort of creating green products

Manufacturing of polymers and plastics derived from petroleum feedstocks are called synthetic products. The existing of synthetics throughout the plastic series of process is detrimental to the environment. Polyurethane is classified as a family of plastics. Vegetable oil is the potential of producing polyurethane in the presence of unsaturated chain in triglyceride, is being considered intermediates of polymers product. An effort of replacing petroleum with green resources is urgently required of its cheap price, and abundantly available. The vegetable now is not just a cooking oil but turned into various polymeric products. This research is aimed to identify the vegetable oil content in polyurethane’s formula with comprehensive low production cost and potentially resulted in the best polyurethane product properties.

High cell density cultivation of Lipomyces starkeyi for achieving highly efficient lipid production from sugar under low C/N ratio

Oleaginous microorganisms such as oleaginous yeasts are well known for the ability to accumulate intracelular lipid more than 20% w/w in certain conditions. Lipomyces starkeyi D35 (Ls-D35 strain) is one of promising oleaginous yeast for lipid production. The purpose of this research is to establish the optimum condition for cell and lipid production of Ls-D35 strain under low C/N ratio (17.9) by high cell density cultivation. The optimum pH for cell and lipid production was achieved at pH 5 by using batch cultivation. Four different feeding strategies were conducted to observe the cell and lipid production of Ls-D35 strain. The highest cell yield was achieved by mixed glucose and xylose as substrates (0.15 w/w substrate) after 96 h and the highest lipid yield was achieved by single xylose feeding (0.13 w/w substrate) after 120 h. Meanwhile, the two most fatty acids content were C18:1 and C16:0 which are similar to the content of vegetable oil. These results showed that Ls-D35 strain could produce high cell and optimum lipid under low initial C/N ratio medium which can be an alternative for biodiesel production and other industrial products.

Application of time-domain NMR as a methodology to quantify adulteration of diesel fuel with soybean oil and frying oil

Diesel fuel is responsible for approximately 47% of all fuel consumed in road transportation in Brazil. As a result of this high consumption, fuel adulteration has increased and fraudsters have used irregular substances, such as kerosene and residual and vegetable oils, which have good miscibility with the fuel making it difficult to detect the fraud. Adulteration causes irreparable damage to engines, such as sudden failure, difficulty in starting, increased fuel consumption, low fuel spraying rate in the combustion chamber, and increased emissions of particulate matter. In this work, time domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) was studied as a method to detect diesel adulteration with soybean oil and frying oil. NMR has advantages over traditional techniques as it does not require sample preparation; it is non-destructive and allows rapid analyses (∼1 min). The TD-NMR analyses showed that the transverse relaxation time (T2) of commercial diesel sample varied between 0.65 and 0.68 s and 0.13 s for both soybean and residual oils. The transverse relaxation times of adulterated diesel samples, ranging from 5 to 100% vegetable oil, show a large T2 variation from 0.13 to 0.68 s. These values show a good determination coefficient (R2 = 0.99) to the results obtained with medium infrared spectroscopy, which is the standard technique to determine the vegetable oil content in diesel fuel. Therefore, we concluded that TD-NMR could be a useful method to detect and quantify diesel adulteration with new and used vegetable oils.

Trace Elemental Characterization of Selected Edible Vegetable Oils

Trace element content of edible vegetable oils is a basic criterion in the assessment of the quality of the oils with regard to freshness, keeping properties, storage and their influence on human nutrition and health. They are also known to have an effect on the rate of oil oxidation. In this study, the levels of 10 elements which include such essential metals as Ca, Mg, Na and K, trace elements such as Cu, Mn, Co and Ni and such toxic metals as Cd and Pb in8 varieties of edible vegetable oils (palm, palm kernel (P.K.O), sesame, soya bean, coconut, ground nut, olive and mustard) collected in Enugu were determined using the direct solvent method and a Buck Model 210VGPatomic absorption spectrophotometer. The concentrations of Ca, Na, K, Mg, Cu, Co, Mn, Ni, Pb and Cd were observed in the range of 0.69 - 0.23, 1.57- 0.48, 2.90 - 1.28, 1.30 - 1.05, 0.60 - 0.00, 1.12 - 0.51, 0.80 - 0.44, 0.00 - 0.00, 3.07 - 0.00, and 0.77- 0.55 mg/kg respectively. Ni was not detected in all the samples. The values for Pb and Cu were higher than the maximum values recommended by FAO/WHO and EU.

Optimized Analysis of MCPD‐ and Glycidyl Esters in Edible Oils and Fats Using Fast Alkaline Transesterification and13C‐Correction for Glycidol Overestimation: Validation Including Interlaboratory Comparison

As of March 2018, legislation has come into force within the European Union (EU) that places maximum levels on the glycidyl ester (GE) content of vegetable oils intended for use in foodstuffs for the European market. As a result, producers of edible oils are obliged to closely monitor the GE levels in all their products. Unfortunately, the three available AOCS methods to measure GE are not really suited for application in a quality control (QC) laboratory within a production facility, where short turnaround times are vital. AOCS Cd29c‐13 has the highest potential from a turnaround perspective, but remains disputable because it is based on a differential GE measurement. Hence, in 2016 the authors published an automated procedure in which the shortcomings of the AOCS Cd29c‐13 are effectively addressed. This article presents the results of an interlaboratory comparison, which is organised across six laboratories in four countries. Methods involved include AOCS Cd29b‐13 as well as an optimized version of the 2016 method, which is carried out both automatically and manually. Prior to validation, several optimizations are implemented to further reduce turnaround time and improve robustness of the original method. Based on the results of the interlaboratory comparison, it is concluded that the automated procedure performs slightly better than the manual alternative. Compared to the AOCS Cd29b‐13, no significant differences are observed for various types and blends of vegetable oils.Practical Application: Because the EU has recently enforced its legislation for maximum GE levels in edible oils, QC laboratories across the EU are looking for methods which are easily implemented. In practice, this implies high quality, low costs and high sample capacity. Food safety demands fast and reliable analysis in order to verify the quality of refined edible oils and fats. Due to the toxicological relevance of these process contaminants, turnaround time is a crucial performance parameter and any possibility of reducing analysis time has to be fully exploited. The method presented here, provides the short turnaround times required for these purposes and is validated by interlaboratory comparison. This is crucial in the coming years when new EU legislation as well as efforts by food companies will continue to push the continuation of mitigation efforts by edible oil producers.Graphical overview of serial versus parallel preparation of seven authentic samples and the profound effect on the total sample preparation time required for the analysis of MCPDe and GE in edible oils.

In-situ transesterification of residual vegetable oil in spent bleaching clay with alkali catalysts using CCD-RSM design of experiment

The spent bleaching clays (SBC) of vegetable oil refining plants have residual vegetable oil contents ranging from 17 to 40 wt%. The common worldwide practice of landfilling such spent clays imposes inevitable environmental hazards. The extraction of oil from a spent clay will not only alleviate this problem, but can also provide an oil source for processes, such as transesterification for the production of alcohol-esters. In-situ transesterification of the residual oil within SBC is an even more attractive idea, as it can eliminate the extraction step from the process. In this study, in-situ transesterification on the spent bleaching clay of a local vegetable oil plant was investigated experimentally. Furthermore, optimum operating conditions were determined for a number of parameters influencing the conversions, including reaction temperature, ethanol-to-SBC ratio, alkali catalyst type, and catalyst-to-SBC mass ratio. The experiments were designed by the response surface method based on the central composite approach (RSM-CCD model). The results were analyzed using the analysis of variance method (ANOVA) to investigate the effect of the parameters on the efficiencies of the biodiesel produced and the oil removed from the initial SBC. Within the ranges investigated, the maximum conversion to ethyl-ester was 72.90% at the optimum conditions of a reaction temperature of 73.2 °C, reaction time of 4.5 h, ethanol/SBC ratio of 4.2 ml/g, while using NaOH alkali catalyst with a catalyst-to-SBC mass ratio of 4.33%.

Correlation of the Solid‐Fat Content in Vegetable Oils with Other Parameters during Thermal Oxidation

AbstractCorrelations of the solid‐fat content (SFC) with oxidative parameters were determined in three vegetable oils including corn, soybean, and palm oils, during thermal oxidation at 150°C. As the oxidation time increased, SFC and oxidation parameters, including conjugated dienoic acid (CDA) value, p‐anisidine value (p‐AV), acid value, and total polar materials (TPM), increased at different rates in all oils. Although corn and soybean oil underwent higher rates of lipid oxidation than palm oil, SFC changes in palm oil were observed at higher rates than those in corn and soybean oils. Palm oil showed a high correlation of SFC against p‐AV and TPM compared with corn and soybean oils. Soybean oil showed a higher correlation of SFC and oxidation parameters than corn oil except acid values. SFC could be useful to determine secondary lipid oxidation products and the level of TPM in oxidized vegetable oils.

High internal vegetable oil nanoemulsion: D-phase emulsification as a unique low energy process

The development of nanoscale emulsions containing high concentration of vegetable oil and low concentration of surfactant is considered challenging in conventional low-energy processes such as the Phase Inversion Temperature (PIT) and Phase Inversion Composition (PIC) methods. For the first time, a stable 20–30 nm oil-in-water nanoemulsion, containing 40.0% (w/w) olive oil was obtained with 2.0% (w/w) single hydrophilic surfactant, applying D-Phase Emulsification (DPE) process in combination with the Box-Behnken statistical design. The preparation of control samples using the PIT and PIC methods resulted in the absence of emulsion formation under the same composition and conditions followed by the DPE process. As a variable influencing the mean particle size of the nanoemulsion in this specific process, the polyol was confirmed to be crucial as the fourth component. An isotropic phase was revealed in place of a liquid crystalline structure or conventional microemulsion phase, enabling easy dispersion of the high oil content in the oil-in-surfactant intermediate phase, during this process. The presence of an initial isotropic phase indicated that there is no need for a strict adjustment of the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), nor of the initial water-in-oil phase as in conventional low-energy methods. The results obtained in the present study confirmed the unique feature of the DPE process, overcoming the limitation of conventional low energy methods, for the development of nanoemulsions with high vegetable oil content as a drug delivery system.