Content And Language Integrated Learning Research Articles

Exploring the Pedagogical Potential of Didactic Audiovisual Translation in Plurilingual Pre-school Education: A Mixed Methods Study with Pre-service Teachers

Introduction: This study investigates the perception and pedagogical viability of Didactic Audiovisual Translation (DAT) in plurilingual education among pre-service pre-school teachers, using mixed methods. It explores the effectiveness of DAT—didactic free commentary in particular—for language acquisition, as well as its suitability for fostering Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and contributing to the improvement of foreign language proficiency. Despite previous research on DAT, there is a shortage of studies focused on early childhood education, underscoring the relevance of this work. Methodology: The study involves 103 pre-service teachers and utilizes questionnaires and focus groups to analyze the benefits, challenges, and opportunities of integrating DAT into CLIL practices. Results: Overall, the findings underline participants’ confidence in the capacity of free commentary to enrich the educational experiences of their future students, while acknowledging associated challenges and emphasizing the ongoing need for exploration and refinement for effective integration. Discussion: The findings suggest adapted approaches for plurilingual instruction in pre-school and highlight areas for future research in this educational field. The integration of DAT into CLIL offers opportunities to promote plurilingualism and enhance linguistic and cultural competence. KEYWORDS: Didactic audiovisual translation (DAT); pre-school education; CLIL; pre-service teachers; free commentary.

Exposure or age? The effect of additional CLIL instruction on young learners’ grammatical complexity while performing an oral task

The purported foreign language gains of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) over traditional EFL (English as a foreign language) programs with young learners are still unclear. Specifically, little is known about how CLIL time and timing impact grammatical complexity. Additionally, mediating factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and extramural exposure have been rarely controlled in the existing literature. This study analysed grammatical complexity in four groups of young learners in Spain ( n = 108) during an oral task. The sample comprised: (1) an EFL-only group (1,766 EFL hours), (2) a low-exposure CLIL group (1,766 EFL hours + 707 CLIL hours), (3) a high-exposure CLIL group (1,766 EFL hours + 2,473 CLIL hours), and (4) a younger high-exposure CLIL group (1,545 EFL hours + 2,164 CLIL hours). All groups were matched for SES and extramural exposure. The analysis included independent ratings and computational measures of overall sentence complexity, subordination, and coordination. Distribution, Kruskal–Wallis and post-hoc tests were conducted. Results showed significant differences in favour of the high-exposure groups over the EFL-only group in the ratings and in two of the computational measures: overall sentence complexity and subordination. This evidence highlights the potential of high-exposure CLIL to supplement grammatical instruction in EFL programs. Our results also suggest that the comparatively higher exposure of the younger high-exposure CLIL group has the potential to override the one-year cognitive advantage of the older, EFL-only learners.

Spontaneous teacher collaboration in early primary CLIL classrooms with pupils of special educational needs (SEN): a dynamic translanguaging and trans-semiotizing perspective

ABSTRACT While a wealth of research demonstrates the benefits of translanguaging and trans-semiotizing (TL-TS) pedagogy in secondary content and language integrated learning (CLIL) settings, little research has explored teacher collaboration in early primary CLIL classrooms nor the operationalisation of co-teaching CLIL classes with students of special educational needs. Drawing on the recent dynamic, distributed view of TL and flows, the study intends to investigate how CLIL co-teachers support primary English-as-an-additional-language classrooms with students of special educational needs in learning to write Information Reports. Five videotaped lessons were analysed to identify patterns of teacher collaboration via TL-TS. The findings show that the co-teachers’ joint orchestration of semiotic resources on different spatio-temporal scales serves to: (1) engage students’ co-construction of the thematic patterns in the target academic genre; (2) create disciplining spaces in classroom contingencies; and (3) enable knowledge brokering and foreground students’ achievement in discipline-specific activities. The results indicate that CLIL teacher collaboration should be expanded with planned spaces and spontaneous and dynamic resources to meet the emerging needs of diverse learners.

‘This is valuable professional development for me’: integrating the multimodalities-entextualization cycle (MEC) in a Chinese DLBE classroom via teacher-researcher collaboration

ABSTRACT The Multimodalities-Entextualization Cycle (MEC), proposed by Lin (2015, Conceptualizing the potential role of L1 in content and language integrated learning (CLIL). Language, Culture and Curriculum, 28(1), 74–89), is a curriculum model designed for teachers to systematically incorporate translanguaging in lessons. Limited studies have addressed the implementation of this model. Further, the significance of teacher-researcher collaboration in translanguaging design is recognized, but the depth of researcher involvement in the co-design process remains unclear. Therefore, this study examined how a novice teacher integrated translanguaging within the MEC model to teach a Science topic in a Chinese DLBE context, focusing on the dynamics of teacher-researcher collaboration and its impact on the planning process. The findings reveal that throughout the learning segment, the teacher intentionally incorporated elements from each stage of the MEC model, along with translanguaging practices, to build students’ background knowledge, facilitate learning, differentiate instruction, and assess student progress according to their needs. This collaborative process not only enhanced the implementation of the MEC model but also provided significant professional development and mentorship opportunities for the teacher. The study underscores the necessity of targeted support for novice teachers in applying translanguaging and the MEC model, emphasising that teacher-researcher collaboration should extend beyond theoretical discussions to offer guidance and strategies that are responsive to the specific needs of both teachers and students.

Language-responsive mathematics teaching and AEN learners in a CLIL context

IntroductionThis study explores the experiences of students with additional educational needs (AEN) in Irish-medium education (IME) mathematics classrooms within a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) context. The research investigates how language-responsive mathematics teaching and adapted summative assessments impact AEN students’ learning outcomes, addressing a critical gap in understanding the interplay between language proficiency and mathematical competencies in bilingual settings.MethodsA case study design was employed in a single IME primary school, focusing on five AEN students aged 9–10 years. Over a five-week intervention, participants engaged in small-group, language-responsive mathematics lessons tailored to their needs. Two summative assessments—one standard school-approved and one researcher-designed with language adaptations—were administered post-intervention. Data sources included teacher observations, reflective journals, and assessment results, analyzed through thematic coding and descriptive statistics.ResultsThe findings revealed that while language adaptations in assessments had minimal impact on overall performance, language-responsive lessons supported student engagement and understanding. Participants demonstrated improved confidence and participation, though challenges persisted in transitioning from concrete to abstract concepts and in language-intensive topics such as probability. The summative assessments were limited in capturing students’ full mathematical abilities due to cognitive and linguistic demands.DiscussionThe study highlights the potential of language-responsive teaching to enhance learning outcomes for AEN students in CLIL contexts. While adapted assessments showed limited efficacy, the pedagogical approach effectively addressed cognitive and linguistic challenges. Future research should explore scalable strategies for integrating language and content learning to support diverse learners in bilingual settings.

How creative and curious are CLIL teachers? Investigating the effect of CLIL teaching experience and the level of education

The aim of the article is to present the research results on two important character virtues, namely creativity and curiosity. Creativity is very significant in the teaching profession, as it involves researching, looking for solutions, and making choices. Curiosity involves “the active recognition, pursuit, and regulation of one’s experience in response to challenging opportunities” (Peterson & Seligman, 2004: 125). The research was conducted in Poland among 149 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) teachers for whom these features are indispensable, bearing in mind various obstacles they have to face, e.g., lack of proper teaching materials. In order to collect the data, the VIA Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) was disseminated among Primary, Junior High School and Secondary School teachers. In the following article, only the data concerning creativity and curiosity is discussed. The findings indicate that self-reported scores for the statements connected with CLIL teachers’ creativity and curiosity did not correlate significantly with the teachers’ experience in CLIL and none of the tested aspects significantly depended on the educational level of the teachers’ employing institutions.

Digital glossary as an instrument of the effectiveness improvement of CLIL model at the technical (aviation) university

Importance. The study presents the results of implementing a methodological model for content and language integrated learning (CLIL) in a technical university, utilizing a digital glossary as both a repository for professional and linguistic data and a pedagogical instrument, aimed at enhancing the learning experience within the context of the aviation English course. The purpose is to foster a consistent improvement of students’ foreign language speaking and related language skills, thereby contributing to the professional development of future aviation professionals capable of effectively carrying out their duties in accordance with International Civil Aviation Organization requirements.Materials and Methods. This study utilizes methods such as analyzing relevant scientific literature and documentation from the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which govern the requirements for aviation personnel language training. Additionally, online platforms suitable for developing a digital glossary are compared and selected. Furthermore, an experiment is conducted and observations are made.Results and Discussion. Based on the experience of implementing digital technologies in the process of foreign language teaching an experimental training has been conducted on the basis of Saint-Petersburg State University of Civil Aviation.Conclusion. An introduction of digital g lossary as an element o f model in the content and language integrated learning process provides the conditions for development and improvement of foreign language proficiency and professional knowledge and, consequentially, provides a better qualification of future civil aviation pilots

Mobilising multilingual and multimodal resources for facilitating knowledge construction: implications for researching translanguaging and multimodality in CLIL classroom context

ABSTRACT The articles in this special issue of the Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development highlight three significant areas of research that have evolved in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) education: (1) the implementation of translanguaging pedagogy and the use of multimodal resources in scaffolding content and language in CLIL classrooms, (2) CLIL teachers’ awareness of the pedagogical philosophies of multilingualism and translanguaging, and (3) the role of multimodality in CLIL assessments. This commentary will begin with a discussion of the articles in this special issue and draw out key theoretical and methodological themes. This commentary will advance the field of CLIL education by critically reflecting on the implications of adopting translanguaging as a methodological framework in CLIL research, which enables teachers and researchers to achieve a greater understanding of the meaning-making processes in CLIL classrooms.

Revising expectations

Abstract Research evidence predominantly based on studies with older learners suggests that Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) instruction yields significant language gains when exposure exceeds 300 hours (Muñoz, 2015). However, the impact of high-intensity CLIL on young learners’ oral proficiency remains underexplored. This study examined fluency, pronunciation, and productive vocabulary measures in young L1-Spanish learners (mean age = 10.46) across four groups: non-CLIL (n = 23), low-CLIL (n = 21), high-CLIL (n = 32), and a younger high-CLIL group (n = 32; mean age = 9.84) with 0, 707, 2473, and 2164 CLIL hours, respectively. Socioeconomic status and extramural exposure were controlled. Intraclass correlations, Kruskal-Wallis, post-hoc, and Friedman tests were conducted. Significant advantages were limited to both high-CLIL groups over the non-CLIL group at the vocabulary level, providing policymakers with empirical evidence about the markedly different outcomes of high, and low-CLIL programmes in relation to oral gains with young learners.

Investigating STEM Secondary School Teachers’ CLIL Assessment Practices in EFL Contexts: the Repertory Grid Technique

Within the context of content and language integrated learning (CLIL), assessment assumes a pivotal role in fostering learning, given the dual emphasis on content and language acquisition. This dual focus engenders a heightened complexity in the assessment process within CLIL classrooms. Despite the escalating prevalence of CLIL classrooms, the aspect of CLIL assessment remains inadequately explored, constituting an unresolved issue in CLIL research and pedagogy. The enquiry into the assessment practices of CLIL teachers serves as a means to elucidate this research lacuna. This study aims to scrutinize the assessment practices employed by five Thai secondary school CLIL teachers, utilizing personal construct theory (PCT) as the foundational framework. Methodologically, data collection encompasses repertory grids and retrospective semi-structured interviews, with a pivotal application of focus grid analysis for data scrutiny and interpretation. The findings revealed that there was a strong preference for interactive and collaborative assessment methods that enhance both language skills and cognitive abilities. In particular, problem-solving tasks, lab experiments, and group discussions are effective in promoting higher-order thinking, while interactive projects and presentations boost language development. In contrast, traditional assessments such as multiple-choice questions are less effective. These findings highlight the need for professional development programmes and supportive educational policies to integrate dynamic, dual-focused assessments into CLIL curricula.

Integrating Content and Language Instruction for Multilingual Learners: A Systematic Review Across Program Types

Given the growing multilingual student population worldwide, many countries/regions have implemented content-based instruction (CBI) programs that include content-area classrooms where language learning takes place during content learning. Scholars have suggested that more attention needs to be given to how teachers teach language in content-area classrooms and that research findings across program contexts should speak to/build on each other. This systematic review draws on sociolinguistic theories to synthesize 199 studies from 2012 –2022 about teacher understandings and practices regarding content-language integration across CBI programs worldwide, including content and language integrated learning (CLIL), English medium of instruction (EMI), immersion or dual language bilingual education (DLBE), and English as a second/additional language (ESL/EAL). Studies described uneven understandings of the content-language relationship and indicated a variety of content-language integration practices (e.g., teaching disciplinary literacy, encouraging discussion, translanguaging, writing language objectives, using visuals, and collaborating between content and language teachers). However, researchers reported challenges including lack of training, time, and curricular guidance. Based on these findings, we offer directions for research and educator preparation/professional learning to help teachers implement content-language integrated practices that support multilingual learners in developing deep content and language learning in content-area classrooms across contexts.

Teachers and students at the crossroads: unpacking L1 use in CLIL in China’s higher education

ABSTRACT Grounded in the concept of translanguaging, the use of first language (L1) in foreign language (L2) classrooms has sparked considerable debate within Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), particularly in under-researched non-Western contexts such as China. A significant research gap remains regarding the contexts, purposes, and factors influencing L1 use. This qualitative study, situated within English language education in Chinese higher education, addresses this gap with a focus on one purposively selected CLIL classroom. Conversation analysis of classroom observations indicates that translanguaging functions as a strategic, context-driven choice shaped by teacher awareness and learner agency rather than as a fallback to L1. In-depth interviews with the teacher and students reveal that L1 use, framed within Cultural-Historical Activity Theory, is mediated by physical and conceptual tools and peer interactions, with effects observed both inside and outside the classroom. The study also highlights how the division of labour and institutional, educational, or ideological rules shape the balance between L1 and L2 use and create tensions between traditional L2 immersion expectations and learners’ practical needs. These findings call for a more nuanced understanding of translanguaging and suggest the reconsideration of strict L2-only policies to enhance learner engagement and comprehension in CLIL.

Creating a meaningful summative assessment in a Chinese immersion context: a translanguaging perspective

Abstract While existing literature has addressed teachers’ translanguaging practices in diverse educational settings, its integration into assessments remains limited. Adopting a participatory research design in the form of a teacher-research collaboration, the present study examined in detail how a content and language integrated learning (CLIL) teacher integrated translanguaging into a summative assessment in a Chinese immersion setting. I also delved into the perceptions of the teacher and her students regarding the assessment. The data were triangulated and included co-design notes, in-class and post-observation field notes, as well as transcripts of one-on-one interviews with the teacher and students. The findings show that the teacher skillfully integrated translanguaging, including using planned strategies and leveraging students’ full linguistic repertoires into the summative assessment. The concept of juntos (García, Ofelia, Susana I. Johnson & Kate Seltzer. 2017. The Translanguaging classroom: Leveraging student bilingualism for learning. Philadelphia, PA: Carlson), a collaborative dynamic among teachers and students appeared to play a major role in the assessment. Integrating translanguaging into the assessment appeared to render complex topics more comprehensible and relevant to the students’ lived experiences. Additionally, it is evident that the teacher–researcher collaboration deepened the teacher’s pedagogical practices in translanguaging and garnered positive feedback from students, indicating an increase in confidence, engagement, and the strengthening of their multilingual identities. I conclude with a call for assessments integrated with translanguaging, transmodalities, and co-learning practices, aiming to transform evaluations into affirmations of students’ funds of knowledge in today’s socio-cultural-political context.

Pre-Service CLIL Teachers’ Conceptions on Bilingual Education: Impact of Initial Training on the Development of Their Teaching Skills

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has been adopted by schools to equip students with the competencies and language skills needed in today’s multilingual and multicultural society. However, teaching content courses through a foreign language requires specific teacher training, both initial and ongoing. This qualitative descriptive study analyses the development of bilingual teaching knowledge in terms of teaching skills among pre-service CLIL teachers (n = 15) at the University of Cádiz in Spain. Two reflective reports written by each pre-service teacher before and after participating in the course CLIL I: Foundations and Curricular Proposals for the Primary School Classroom (2022/23) were analyzed. The responses were categorized using Qualitative Content Analysis. The reflective reports included questions about their conception of bilingual teaching; methods for teaching bilingual courses; and justifications for their teaching methods. In addition, a focus group was conducted with a representative sample of participants. The results reveal a significant development in pre-service teachers’ knowledge of the teaching skills required for bilingual teaching. Particularly, there is an increase in contributions related to justifying their teaching methods. Moreover, the findings highlight pre-service teachers’ recognition of the differences between foreign language and CLIL teachers, as well as their ability to plan CLIL teaching effectively.

TEACHERS PERCEPTION OF INTEGRATING SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH CLIL AT THE PRIMARY LEVEL ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS IN BANGLADESH

Being one of the signatories of the United Nations (2015) Sustainable Development Goals, Bangladesh is committed to achieving the goals which is also the demand of time in this 21st century. To attain sustainability for a habitable future, teaching sustainability is a mustthat is possible to achieve in the English language classroom.The research paper aims to find teachers perceptions of ensuring teaching sustainability in the English language classroom at the primary level of education in Bangladesh. It analyses the contents of the National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB) approved English textbook of Class-V to see how many of them align with the criteria of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). It also tries to identify the pedagogy of English language teaching at the primary level from the teachers perspectives so that the researchers can also comprehend their perceptions of students current learning outcomes. The study grounded on the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach is mixed method research that is descriptive in type. Content analysis, surveys, and interviews of teachers are done to collect the data. The research involves 4 primary school teachers in Bangladesh to understand their perception of teaching sustainability and students sustainability awareness along with their language skills. In this research, the purposive sampling of non-probability sampling has been used. The study finds teachers positive approach to ensuring teaching sustainability following the existing textbook. However, their mixed perception is uncovered about integrating CLILfor building an advantageous situation for both teachers and students to result in order toachievesustainable goals and prepare students better for the future.

Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) of CLIL pedagogy and globalisation in Japan

Abstract The paper discusses the potential of CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) pedagogy in the current practice of ELT (English Language Teaching) and the issues of global education from a viewpoint of DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion) in Japan. DEI into CLIL pedagogy ensures a variety of learning environments, appropriate CLIL learning, and a sense of belonging. CLIL can also provide better ideas and resources to cultivate DEI. This paper therefore argues that CLIL pedagogy has the potential to change and incorporate issues related to DEI. The Japan CLIL Pedagogy Association (J-CLIL) conducted a questionnaire survey on CLIL and its sponsored events and activities in 2021. Results show that: (1) many teachers are not aware of DEI; (2) their mindset can become gradually diverse; (3) current education lacks equity with respect to students; and (4) inclusive education is still not satisfactory. Ensuring equity in DEI is crucial in the realm of CLIL teacher education. Therefore, it is imperative for CLIL teacher education to be more attuned to DEI concerns to enhance the implementation of CLIL practices effectively. The DEI process needs to be integrated into CLIL and globalisation within the Japanese context. For that purpose, there needs to be more research and practice necessary to promote a CLIL type of languages-integrated learning, and this paper argues that it can be done through the IMT (Integrated Multifunctional Teacher) development program in Japan.

TRUE AND FALSE PAIRS IN BUSINESS TERMINOLOGY: TEACHING METHODOLOGIES AND STUDENT DIFFICULTIES

This paper addresses the challenges tertiary-level students encounter in translating true and false pairs in Business English. A one-group pretest-posttest experiment was conducted to investigate the impact of explicit teaching methods. The pretest revealed significant difficulties in translating both true and false pairs. Explicit instruction led to a reduction in errors, indicating the efficacy of targeted teaching methods. Error analysis and classroom discussions revealed that the Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach and the use of the mother tongue are efficient as many students were unfamiliar with terminology and economic concepts in Serbian and that anglicisms, polysemy and synonymy complicate learning, so cognates should be introduced gradually.

Challenges for being self-directed in content and language integrated learning with instructional videos

Self-directed skills are crucial for video-based learning as learners often need to manage their pace, set goals, and engage with content independently. While much research focuses on the effectiveness of design and design principles in facilitating self-directed learning (SDL) in multimedia environments, boundary conditions arise due to the highly individualized and unique nature of each learning trajectory. This paper reports the findings of a case study involving five university students who speak English as an additional language (EAL). It explores the difficulties they faced while learning mathematics with instructional videos and the approaches they used to address these challenges in the context of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Findings from video-stimulated recall (VSR) and semi-structured interviews reveal that language issues influenced and drove many decisions in their self-directed learning paths. Notably, the challenges of grasping academic language and terminology led participants to spend considerable time and effort on navigating video designs to aid language comprehension and on seeking extra resources to better understand the lectures. However, the lack of timely feedback and expert guidance posed further challenges for these EAL learners in identifying their knowledge gaps, thereby complicating the search for resources appropriate to their language and academic levels.

Is social interaction a catalyst for digital environments? Exploring affordances of synchronous delivery in online CLIL

ABSTRACT Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has emerged as a pedagogical approach integrating foreign language learning with subject content. Nevertheless, its foray into the online environment, where courses are commonly delivered in two modes: asynchronous and synchronous, remains unexplored. By integrating synchronous delivery into an asynchronous-only online CLIL course, this study aims to probe how synchronous delivery affects students’ learning performances (learning behaviors and outcomes), and investigate learners’ perspectives on synchronous delivery as affordances for enhancing these performances. The study involved 969 learners and two teachers, with data collected from six sources for triangulation: tracking data from social media chat logs, website learning records, course scores, teachers’ reflective narratives, observation of synchronous learning, and student interviews. The findings unveil the effectiveness of synchronous delivery in promoting learning performances, evident in students’ proactive time management and interactive behaviors, as well as elevated learning outcomes. Three affordances – pedagogical, technological, and social – are offered by synchronous delivery for promoting learning performances. Particularly noteworthy are the social affordances, which significantly enhance learning behaviors and outcomes by fostering efficient interactions, cordial interpersonal relationships, and a learning community.

Enhancing multimodal output in CLIL education: the impact of VR games on fourth-grade students’ English poster designs and presentations in Taiwan

Despite the growing recognition of the importance of multimodal input and digital virtual reality (VR) games in enhancing EFL learners’ productive language skills, a significant gap remains in empirical research examining their impact on multimodal output—particularly writing and speaking—within content and language integrated learning (CLIL) science education. This quasi-experimental study addresses this gap by investigating the potential benefits of using VR games to enhance fourth-grade CLIL students’ productive language skills, specifically writing and speaking, through the analysis of their ability to convey scientific concepts in multimodal output. Grounded in self-regulated learning (SRL) theory, the study compares the effects of multimodal input embedded in VR games with those of traditional PowerPoint (PPT)-led games on students’ English poster designs (writing) and oral presentations (speaking), using the 4Cs (Content, Communication, Cognition, and Culture) framework in multimodal assessments. The study involved 81 fourth-grade students from three Taiwanese public elementary schools, divided into an experimental group (EG = 40) using VR-based games and a control group (CG = 41) using PPT-led games for content review. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining quantitative evaluations with rubrics based on the 4Cs framework and qualitative rater reflections to provide a comprehensive understanding of how different review methods influenced student performance and creative output. Quantitative findings revealed that students using VR review games significantly outperformed those using traditional PPT games in aspects of Content and Cognition for both poster designs and presentations, demonstrating greater depth, accuracy, and application of scientific concepts and higher-order cognitive skills. In terms of Communication, the EG showed higher target vocabulary usage and sentence complexity in presentations, but no significant differences were found in Culture outcomes between the groups or in Communication in posters. Expert raters’ reflections further highlighted that students using VR games exhibited more innovative and integrated use of scientific content, critical thinking, and multimodal expressions, reflecting deeper engagement with the material. This study empirically demonstrates that game-based virtual reality learning environments (VRLEs) significantly enhance students’ multimodal output in content and cognitive skills. Theoretically, it extends the application of SRL in CLIL contexts by highlighting the potential of VRLEs to foster advanced cognitive skills and emphasizes the importance of multimodal assessments in capturing comprehensive student learning outcomes. Future research should explore integrating cultural content into VR environments to enhance students’ cultural awareness and sensitivity.