Contemporary Scholars Research Articles

The “Missing” Oblation and the Problem of Sacrifice in Early Antiochene Anaphoras: A Reconsideration of John Fenwick and Stefano Parenti

AbstractThere is a wrinkle in the story of common features in West Syrian anaphoras, which John Fenwick called “the Missing Oblation.” In this article, I argue that the importance of the “missing oblation” highlighted by Fenwick, Robert Taft, Stefano Parenti and others needs to be balanced against the verbs of oblation that are present. The emphasis on the missing oblation, combined with the tendency to summarize the Antiochene structure with little reference to the importance of these verbs, results in an inaccurate and unbalanced sense of the degree to which the anaphora expresses the belief that the action of offering bread and wine is constitutive of the eucharistic action. This should lead to a caution with the unhelpful heuristic about the spiritualization of sacrifice in contemporary scholarship and the underemphasis of the belief in the materiality of the eucharistic sacrifice in writers such as John Chrysostom and earlier anaphoras.

Studi terhadap Hadis yang Sering Disalahgunakan untuk Mendukung Aksi Terorisme

Terrorism is an extreme activity that can take the lives of many people and is very detrimental to various parties. This study aims to conduct a critical analysis of hadiths that are often abused by terrorist groups to support acts of violence and terrorism. The research method used is a literature review with a content analysis approach to hadith texts as well as the interpretation of classical and contemporary scholars. This study found that the hadiths that are often used as justifications by terrorist groups actually have a different historical context and meaning than what is understood by the perpetrators of terrorism. By understanding the context and proper interpretation, these hadiths should teach peace, tolerance, and justice. The study also highlights the important role of Muslim scholars and scholars in providing a correct understanding of Islamic teachings to prevent the misuse of hadith in acts of violence. The findings of this research are expected to contribute to efforts to deradicalize and counter terrorism, as well as strengthen the understanding of Islam which is rahmatan lil 'alamin.

Karl von Richthofen’s Altfriesisches Wörterbuch (1840): A Milestone in Germanic Lexicography

Abstract Karl von Richthofen’s voluminous Altfriesisches Wörterbuch was published in 1840, when the author was only 29 years old. It marked a major achievement in the field of Old Frisian studies and well beyond that discipline. This article introduces the author, his study at the universities of Berlin and Göttingen and how the dictionary evolved from what was originally intended to be a subject index to accompany his critical and comparative edition of all the then known legal texts pertaining to medieval Frisia, Friesische Rechtsquellen (1840). Much information about the genesis of the dictionary can be extracted from the intense discussion which Richthofen in numerous entries entertains with contemporary scholars. The article furthermore presents an analysis of the dictionary’s macro- and micro-structure and finally discusses how this highly innovative dictionary was received upon publication.

Facial emotion recognition: A comprehensive review

AbstractFacial emotion recognition (FER) represents a significant outcome of the rapid advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) technology. In today's digital era, the ability to decipher emotions from facial expressions has evolved into a fundamental mode of human interaction and communication. As a result, FER has penetrated diverse domains, including but not limited to medical diagnosis, customer feedback analysis, the automation of automobile driver systems, and the evaluation of student comprehension. Furthermore, it has matured into a captivating and dynamic research field, capturing the attention and curiosity of contemporary scholars and scientists. The primary objective of this paper is to provide an exhaustive review of FER systems. Its significance goes beyond offering a comprehensive resource; it also serves as a valuable guide for emerging researchers in the FER domain. Through a meticulous examination of existing FER systems and methodologies, this review equips them with essential insights and guidance for their future research pursuits. Moreover, this comprehensive review contributes to the expansion of their knowledge base, facilitating a profound understanding of this rapidly evolving field. In a world increasingly dependent on technology for communication and interaction, the study of FER holds a pivotal role in human‐computer interaction (HCI). It not only provides valuable insights but also unlocks a multitude of possibilities for future innovations and applications. As we continue to integrate AI and facial emotion recognition into our daily lives, the importance of comprehending and enhancing FER systems becomes increasingly evident. This paper serves as a stepping stone for researchers, nurturing their involvement in this exciting and ever‐evolving field.

Prolegomena to the study of Youxi Sanmei 遊戲三昧 Buddhist sacred play between agonism and mimicry

ABSTRACT This article outlines a genealogical profile of an elusive doctrinal concept that, after being discussed in several Mahāyāna sutras, had a significant impact on East Asian Buddhist traditions. This notion is known as ‘playful samādhi’, in Chinese youxi sanmei 遊戲三昧, which translates to Sanskrit vikrīḍita samādhi. The compound youxi 遊戲 (‘playful’ – ‘at play’) was cited in Chinese sutras and Buddhist documents, in renowned and widely diffused collections of gongans/kōans 公案, was expounded and commented on by Dōgen Zenji 道元禅師 (1200–1253) in its Japanese version yuge 遊戲 and was explored by modern scholars and interpreters as Ryōsuke Ōhashi 大橋良介 and Wu Rujun 吳汝均, who compares youxi 遊戲 with Schiller’s Spieltrieb . Given the significance of ‘playful samādhi’ across different epochs and cultures, I believe a clarification of the term is especially needed. Furthermore, explicit reference to contemporary scholarship on play studies can help uncover its philosophical implications, shedding new light on a complex notion that defies a univocal interpretation and reunites in its semantic field both the aesthetic and religious dimensions.

A critical need for the concept of matrescence in perinatal psychiatry.

The concept of matrescence, akin to adolescence but for mothers, has gained increasing attention in perinatal psychiatry, marking a paradigm shift towards understanding the holistic development of mothers. Matrescence encompasses the myriad psychological, social, cultural, and existential changes which occur as women transition into motherhood. Despite advances in maternal mental health, a bias towards pathologizing maternal experiences persists in research and practice. This commentary advocates for the integration of matrescence into perinatal psychiatry, drawing from the work of Dana Raphael and contemporary scholarship. Matrescence offers a strengths-based framework that acknowledges both the challenges and opportunities of motherhood, emphasizing the normative aspects of a mother's self-development. By adopting matrescence terminology and nosology, clinicians and researchers can enhance traditional psychiatric classifications. Additionally, matrescence underscores the importance of considering ecological systems and historical factors in maternal well-being, highlighting the need for comprehensive and compassionate healthcare services. Embracing matrescence as a fundamental concept in perinatal psychiatry holds promise for improving maternal mental health outcomes and promoting the flourishing of mothers worldwide.

Maqāṣid Al-Sunnah Dalam Kerangka Maqāṣid Al-Sharīʿah: Analisis Konseptual

Al-Ghazālī (d. 505 H) in his work Iḥyā ʿUlūm al-Dīn is among the earliest figures to mention the concept of Maqāṣid al-Sunnah using the term Maqāṣid al-Nubuwwah. He employs this term in elucidating the objectives behind the legislation of female circumcision, as suggested in the Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (SAW). However, it raises questions as this term has not received significant attention from classical and contemporary scholars. This is attributed to the overshadowing of the term Maqāṣid al-Sunnah by discussions on Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah, which has garnered widespread attention among both classical and contemporary scholars. The question arises: is Maqāṣid al-Sunnah a distinct and entirely new field separate from Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah, or is it a subset within the discourse of Maqāṣid al-Sunnah? Hence, this study centers on integrating Maqāṣid al-Sunnah within the framework of Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah, asserting that the Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) serves as the cornerstone in shaping Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah itself. Additionally, this study will examine the writings of classical and contemporary scholars in their use of the term Maqāṣid al-Sunnah and the contexts in which it is employed. The study employs a methodology involving the documentation of classical and contemporary works and academic articles. Furthermore, a content analysis of the gathered materials will be conducted to ensure comprehensive results. In conclusion, this study finds that Maqāṣid al-Sunnah is not a separate term or field distinct from Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah; rather, it constitutes a crucial component within Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah. Moreover, the study determines that Maqāṣid al-Sunnah is focused solely on the objectives of a legal ruling derived from the Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (SAW), referred to as al-Maṣāliḥ al-Muʿtabarah, and does not encompass al-Maṣāliḥ al-Mursalah within the discourse of Maqāṣid al-Sharīʿah.

Metodologi Kritikan Sanad Riwayat Sirah: Satu Kajian Terhadap Akram Ḍiyā’ Al-ʿumarī Dalam Karyanya Al-Sīrah Al- Nabawiyyah Al-Ṣaḥīḥah

Criticism (naqd) of hadith narrations is one of the ways to determine the authenticity of a hadith. This method has also been employed in the compilation of the Prophet's biography (sirah) by scholars in their work known as al-Sīrah al-Nabawiyyah. Through research conducted on this work, it was found that scholars critiqued certain narrations in the sirah based on two main aspects of hadith, namely the sanad (chain of narrators) and the matan (content). Therefore, this article constitutes a methodological analysis study of the scholars' use of criticism (naqd) solely from the perspective of the sanad in narrations of the sirah. It uses Akram Ḍiyā’ al-ʿUmarī, a contemporary scholar in the field of sirah and history, as a sample for the study through his work, al-Sīrah al-Nabawiyyah al-Ṣaḥīḥah. A qualitative research approach employing library analysis methods is utilized to extract the methodology employed by Akram Ḍiyā’ al-ʿUmarī in his criticism (naqd) of the sanad of sirah narrations and to analyze his criticism based on the recognized methods of Takhrīj al-Ḥadīth and al-Ḥukm ʿAlā al-Riwāyah, as established by hadith scholars. The results of this study show that Akram Ḍiyā’ al-ʿUmarī critiques the sanad of sirah narrations with a lenient approach towards accepting weak narrations, in accordance with the methodology proposed by hadith scholars.

Surrogacy and the significance of gestation: Implications for law and policy.

Gestational surrogacy is ethically complex, generating very different responses in law and policy worldwide. This paper argues that contemporary surrogacy law and policy, across many jurisdictions, fail to give sufficient attention to the significance of the relationship between the child and the gestational surrogate. This failure risks repeating the mistakes of historical, discreditedapproaches to adoption and donor-assisted conception. This paper argues that proper recognition of the significance of gestation must be an organising principle in surrogacy law and policy. The paper begins by pointing to examples of surrogacy law and practice where the role of the gestator is unacceptably minimised, most notably the framing of the surrogate as a mere 'carrier'.It goes on to examine the nature of gestation, including consideration of contemporary scholarship on the metaphysics of pregnancyand emerging work in epigenetics, and argues that current evidence supports the view that the gestational relationship must be taken more seriously than it currently is. The paper then draws analogies with parenthood in donor-assisted conception and adoption to argue that approaches to parental status in novel family formations that fail to promote transparency and seek to deny the truth of familial relationships are doomed to fail. The paper concludes by suggesting some implications for law and policy that flow from placing sufficient emphasis on the gestational role. The overarching thesis of this paper is that gestational surrogacy is ethically permissible when these fundamental requirements are adhered to, and that surrogacy law should proceed on this basis.

Money Politics from the Perspective of Ahmad Bahauddin Nursalim

This article aims to understand more about the phenomenon of money politics from the perspective of Ahmad Baharuddin Nursalim. He is one of the contemporary fiqh scholars. This type of research is qualitative-descriptive. In an effort to collect data, researcher used the literature study method on data related to the topics discussed in this article. The results of the research show that money politics is an activity that basically violates the rules of state law, violates religious propositions and is contrary to human nature. However, contemporary scholars such as Ahmad Bahauddin Nursalim consider that money politics is no longer categorised as “risywah” (something cursed by Allah and His messenger). The reason is that in this era there is a collective benefit that still needs to be fought using money politics, without money politics it is feared that this benefit will not be achieved and it is feared that it will cause a loss. For him, money politics is not only an activity that can be done by a good Muslim, but for the sake of the benefit of the people, money politics is an obligation for Muslims who are able to do it.

Ben BUCHANAN, The Hacker and the State: Cyber Attacks and the New Normal of Geopolitics (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2020)

In “Hacker and the State: Cyber Attacks and the New Normal of Geopolitics,” a comprehensive work spanning three chapters, Ben Buchanan undertakes a significant exploration of the transformative effect that hackers have had on global affairs over the past two decades. Positioned at the intersection of cyberspace and international relations, Buchanan employs the established concepts of “signaling and shaping” from the field of International Relations (IR), which refer to the tactics and activities that governments or other players use to convey their intentions, sway public opinion, and mold geopolitical outcomes. In IR, signaling refers to deliberate acts or signals taken by states or other actors to tell others about their intentions or capacities, affecting perceptions and forming expectations in the process. Contrarily, shaping describes intentional attempts to alter the dynamics, norms, or structure of the international system to bring about outcomes that support one’s strategic goals or interests. For example, in the field of IR, nuclear capabilities are frequently analyzed as signaling mechanisms due to their potential for catastrophic destruction. Similarly, contemporary scholarship suggests that cyber capabilities have become increasingly instrumental for signaling purposes, reflecting the evolving dynamics of international security and diplomacy.

The Practice of Hinduism in Malaysia

This study investigates the vibrant expression of Hinduism in Malaysia, focusing on the Indian diaspora that has predominantly settled in the region over the last three to four generations. The Indian community, initially brought in during the colonial era for work in plantations and construction, has managed to maintain a distinct cultural and religious identity through the establishment of temples, vernacular schools, and cultural institutions such as drama-sheds. These institutions play a pivotal role in preserving and fostering communal bonds. Methods and Methodology: This research employs a mixed-methods approach, integrating fieldwork and library studies. Fieldwork includes participant observation and in-depth interviews with community members, religious leaders, and cultural practitioners. The library study involves an extensive review of historical records, religious texts, and contemporary scholarly works on Hinduism in Malaysia. This dual approach enables a comprehensive understanding of the socio-religious dynamics within the community. Implications: The study highlights the critical role of subaltern social institutions in promoting cultural cohesion and continuity among the Malaysian Hindu community. It reveals how these institutions have enabled the community to navigate and adapt to historical and contemporary challenges, ensuring the preservation of their cultural and religious heritage. The findings contribute to broader discussions on migration, cultural resilience, and the integration of traditional practices within modern societal frameworks. This research underscores the importance of recognizing and supporting the role of community-driven institutions in sustaining cultural diversity and religious pluralism in multicultural societies.

The Theory of Quantity in Measures and Scales a Comparative Jurisprudential Study

Every body has a size and mass that distinguishes it from others and makes it different from others. Some of these bodies are huge and large in size, and some are small and light in weight. Among these masses and bodies are some that are dealt with by their size and weight, each according to its quantity, weight, and cheapness. This is why they created quantities by which these weights and quantities could be estimated, so they used measures and weights for that. Objectives: The research aims to know some measures and weights, such as the wife’s maintenance, the amount of zakat, etc.I found it to be a widely spread topic, and widely used in the folds of jurisprudence. During my reading of jurisprudence books, I found jurists using many quantities, of multiple types, and different forms, according to the type of each quantity. methodology: I begin by mentioning the title and the definition in its language and terminology, and the basis of the issue from a verse or hadith, then I arrange the opinions, starting with the first, then the next, then the next, and I make the statement that seems to me closest to the truth - according to what I have arrived at - in the last. I have attributed the Qur’anic verses to their surahs, and the noble hadiths to their original sources as much as I can. If I do not find it, I indicate the place from which I took it. Results: Conclusion: Jurisprudential theories are a new method of writing, and a new method of classification, created by contemporary scholars. They composed several theories, with multiple topics, according to each theory and its details. The theory of magnitude is a theory that includes the origins of the particulars of quantities, in its spread within the various sections of jurisprudence.

To profit or not to profit: Founder identity at the intersection of religion and entrepreneurship

For more than a century, discussion of the connections between religion and entrepreneurship has pointed to what we would now label questions of identity. Our study of 25 participants in a program in Northern Kenya that aimed to introduce and stimulate capitalist entrepreneurship within extremely poor pastoralist communities shows that differences in participants' religious social identities strongly shaped whether or not they adopted new roles and role identities as capitalist entrepreneurs. This process also shifted the domains in which their religious and collectivist social identities were salient and helped to explain the emergence of important and contested changes in social and economic relations. We contribute to the development of founder identity theory by building research at the intersection of entrepreneurship and religion and at the intersection of entrepreneurship and poverty alleviation.

Decolonizing Regional Politics in Oceania: Re-examining the Historical Record

ABSTRACT Contemporary scholarship on the decolonization of regional organizations in Oceania has emphasized the agency of Indigenous leaders and the extent to which they led the charge to both decolonize the South Pacific Commission and to set up a new regional organization, namely, the South Pacific Forum, in which political issues could freely be discussed. In doing so, there has been a tendency to treat the colonial powers as a homogeneous group all reading from the same imperial script while Pacific Island leaders are often portrayed as a largely unified ensemble of players whose own agendas naturally harmonized around the project of decolonization. In re-examining the historical record, this article highlights the diversity of approaches evinced by actors on the regional stage leading up to the formation of the South Pacific Forum in 1971, showing that there are many more nuances to the story.

Islamic Family Law Reform in Indonesia Through Supreme Court Circulars: A Maqasid Sharia Perspective

From 2012 to 2022, the Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia has issued ten new regulations through Supreme Court Circulars (SEMA) resulting from Plenary Chamber Meetings, which have produced 458 new legal rules. Among these new legal rules, 109 govern Islamic civil law, indicating that SEMAs represent another variation in the efforts to reform Islamic family law in Indonesia. This research aims to examine the existence and efforts of Islamic family law reform in Indonesia from the perspective of maqasid sharia according to contemporary scholars. This research uses a mixed-method approach, employing both statutory and conceptual approaches. Primary data sources consist of SEMAs from 2012 to 2022, and secondary data consist of legal regulations related to issues of Islamic family law, which are analyzed. The theory used for data analysis is the theory of maqasid sharia. The results of this research show that the reform of Islamic family law regulations in Indonesia through SEMAs from 2012 to 2022 is integrative with maqasid sharia. The regulations issued in SEMAs have fulfilled six aspects of maqasid sharia, namely: (a) aspects of faith, creed, and monotheism; (b) aspects of human nature and moral improvement; (c) aspects of common sense and legal contextualization; (d) aspects of human rights, freedom, equality, justice, and women's rights; (e) aspects of good order and civilization; (f) aspects of public interest (maslahah)

Framing Ibn Khaldūn’s Kitāb al-’Ibar : Cyclical History and the Moral of Nothing Human is Forever

Abstract: The works of the 14th-century historian and jurist ‘Abd al-Raḥmān Ibn Khaldūn (d. 1406 CE) have long attracted significant interest in the West, both within and beyond the academy. Different assessments of his works and legacy have emerged, with some considering his writings a late-medieval precursor to modern social science, and others considering him typical of his intellectual and social context. While most Ibn Khaldūn scholarship avoids these extremes, they have a heuristic value and can help better understand the relationship between text and context in Ibn Khaldūn’s writings. Within this discursive context, this article attempts to recontextualize Ibn Khaldūn’s magnum opus, the Kitāb al-’Ibar (Book of Morals), within the universal human desire to find meaning through history. It does so by identifying the moral that “nothing human is forever” forms the key moral of the work, and that this would be immediately obvious for Ibn Khaldūn’s contemporary readership. This article is divided into three sections. The first outlines the importance and limitations of context for interpreting Ibn Khaldūn, followed by a discussion of the importance of human mortality and impermanence in Ibn Khaldūn’s historical writing. The article concludes with a discussion of cyclical history and the search for universal truth in the art of history writing. Drawing on a wide range of primary and secondary sources, this article places Ibn Khaldūn in conversation with his ancient and medieval predecessors, as well as with later historiographers and contemporary scholarship.

Breviarium rerum gestarum populi romani в отечественной и зарубежной историографии: к вопросу об источниках Феста

The transformative processes within the Roman Empire during the late 3rd and early 4th centuries brought about significant changes across various aspects of societal life, including the educational sphere. The proliferation of Christianity played a pivotal role in reshaping existing pedagogical prac-tices, ideologies, and standards, particularly among the elite class. With the emergence of a new political landscape during the dominatum era, there arose a demand for revised didactic norms. These norms aimed to provide administrators and officials with comprehensive insights into the history of Rome, its allies, and adversaries. During the 360s, concise didactic guides or “Breviaries” were developed. Notable among them is Flavius Eutropius' “Breviarium ab Urbe condita” (“Breviary from the Founding of the City”), recognized as a prominent textbook on Late Antiquity history in contempo-rary scholarship. Another significant work is the “Breviarium rerum ges-tarum populi Romani” (“Breviary of the Deeds of the Roman People”), compiled by an individual known as Festus (? – ca. 380). However, this text remained on the fringes of scholarly discourse for some time due to its brev-ity and the author’s heavy reliance on predecessors. Most scholars agree that Festus' "Breviarium" serves as a didactic compendium intended for both the emperor, who may not have been highly educated, and the officials of his empire. While there is little doubt among researchers regarding the peda-gogical nature of this work, several other questions, such as those concern-ing Festus' sources and the degree of the author's independence, remain un-resolved in historiography. Currently, there exist two approaches to address-ing the issue of identifying and studying Festus' sources. The first, positivist approach (endorsed by R. Jacoby, E. Wölfflin, A. Bettendorff, D.V. Kareev), states that Festus' sources can be easily identified by comparing parallels between his texts and those of his predecessors. However, there are differing views within historiography regarding the number and composition of the sources used by Festus in creating the “Breviary.” The second, critical ap-proach (advocated by D. Büer), denies the possibility of compiling an ex-haustive list of the sources of the “Breviary” due to the limited tradition of creating texts of this genre that have reached us. This article examines the evolution of historians' judgments regarding the possibilities and methods of identifying and interpreting Festus' sources in the composition of the “Breviary,” as well as discussing methodological approaches to studying this work.

Augustine on music as the harmonious language of spirituality: An apophatic theological study

This article arose from the study of apophatic theology also known as the via-negativa. Apophatic theology, by definition, refrains from stating what and who God is instead of focusing on what God is not. It renders religious language as a sign-system inadequate in describing God, his nature, and human numinous experiences. Yet, language is the fundamental modelling system that stimulates our everyday phenomenological, spiritual, and religious developments. This article is demonstrating how the apophatic theological view attempted to solve or investigate the inadequacy of religious language or the lack of God’s language. The research drew from contemporary scholarship on Augustine’s use of apophatic theology in developing its hypothesis of the importance of music as a transcendental language. Moreover, through music and prayer, language becomes an intermediary beyond the physical to the metaphysical. In this instance, Augustine of Hippo, coming to terms with the inadequacy of religious language, considered music a succinct communicative tool in his theology and divine pedagogy. So, due to the challenges of language, the purpose of this article is using Augustine and his view of music within the Sitz im Leben of his spiritual development to solve a theological problem. In this article, the following will be discussed: (1) Augustine’s Confessions as a dialogue where he speaks to God through Scriptures and hymns; (2) Augustine’s earlier philosophical theory of music; (3) and Augustine’s use of apophatic theology in our spiritual development. The importance of this research will help us understand God’s immanence (over his ineffable) through our use and understanding of music as a harmonious language consisting of unchanging mathematical properties. Furthermore, the truthfulness of music as a harmonious language about God’s mystery can be better understood.Contribution: Through Augustine’s apophatic theology, this study contributes to our understanding and revitalisation of spirituality using music as an alternative form of harmonious language of the spirit. Moreover, it considers music a universal language that transcends all senses and other modes of cognitive activities. By establishing a basic principle of what makes us spiritual, we can transform our cognitive abilities and become better spiritual beings. Furthermore, this study examined the harmonic nature of music in the seven liberal arts as a significant mathematical aspect of the cosmos.

The Requirement of a Mahram for a Woman's Travel under the Contemporary Developments and Fatwas

This study addresses an important issue that has occupied the minds of Muslim men and women, both in the past and present, namely the question of requiring a mahram for a woman's travel. The current study deals with this issue through an examination of the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad—peace be upon him—and the statements of ancient scholars, as well as the opinions of contemporary scholars, in a detailed and analytical jurisprudential study. The study aimed to delve into and scrutinize the prophetic hadiths and the statements of scholars, reverting to their texts to understand the rationale behind the ruling, to arrive at a Sharia ruling that aligns with the prophetic hadiths, the rationale, and the benefit upon which the ruling is based, and to connect it with the contemporary context. The study concluded that scholars have differed on this issue both in ancient and modern times. Some adhered strictly to the apparent meanings of the mentioned hadiths, thereby prohibiting women's travel without a mahram, without any exceptions. Others have made exceptions for certain cases, such as an elderly woman who is not desired and a woman travelling with a group of trustworthy women, as well as the safety of the journey, and that this applies to every person travelling with the intention of obeying Allah, whether obligatory or non-obligatory, such as visiting and trading.