Egg Contamination Research Articles

Engine oil from agricultural machinery as a source of PCDD/Fs and PCBs in free-range hens

Free-range hens spend most of their lives outdoors, resulting in their heavy exposure to environmental pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs), and non-dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (NDL-PCBs). We present a case of contamination of free-range eggs that is previously unreported in the literature. The aim of our study was a source investigation after finding a high level of PCDD/Fs in samples of eggs from one of the inspected farms. Samples of hens’ eggs, muscles, and livers and the feeds and soils were analyzed. The results showed that the soil samples taken from the paddock contained high concentrations of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs expressed as toxic equivalents (TEQ) (72.9 ± 18.2 pg WHO-TEQ g−1 dry mas (d.m.)) and a high concentration of NDL-PCBs (207 ± 46.9 ng g−1 d.m.). The investigation found that the cause of the soil contamination was oil leaking from the farm’s tractor engine. The oil contained very high concentrations of PCDD/F and DL-PCBs (1013 ± 253 pg WHO-TEQ g−1 oil) and 5644 ng g−1 of NDL-PCBs. The source of the contamination was confirmed by the similarity of the PCDD/F and PCB profiles in the hen eggs and the soil contaminated by engine oil. The dietary intake of toxins resulting from consumption of the eggs is provided. For children, the consumption of contaminated eggs would result in an intake of double the tolerable weekly intake (TWI), while for adults, it would be approx. 60–70% of TWI.

Genome-wide characterization of circRNA expression profile in overexpression of RIP2 chicken macrophages associated with avian pathogenic E.coli infection

ABSTRACT Avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) can cause localized and systemic diseases in poultry, threatening human health via meat or egg contamination and resulting in considerable economic losses to the poultry industry globally. Increasing evidence shows circRNAs were widely involved in various biological processes. However, the role of circRNAs in the host response against APEC infection, especially correlated with the regulation of RIP2, remains unclear. Herein, the RNAseq technology was used to identify the circRNA expression profiles in the overexpression of RIP2 macrophages with or without APEC infection. A total of 256 and 287 differentially expressed (DE) circRNAs were identified in the overexpression of RIP2 group (oeRIP2) vs. the wild-type group (WT) and oeRIP2 + APEC vs. APEC, respectively, whose parental genes were involved in MAPK signalling pathway, Wnt signalling pathway, focal adhesion, tight junction, and VEGF signalling pathways. Specifically, the key circRNAs, such as 5:814443-825127, 10:18922360-18928461, 2:8746306-8750639, and 2:124177751-124184063 might play a critical role in APEC infection and the regulation of RIP2. As a whole, these findings will facilitate understanding the molecular mechanism underlying circRNAs, especially related to the regulation of the RIP2 gene. Meanwhile, the study may offer new ideas to improve host immune and inflammatory response against APEC infection.

Gambaran Escherichia coli resistan antibiotik asal tangan pemerah, ambing sapi, susu serta air di Peternakan Sapi Perah Kecamatan Cendana, Enrekang, Sulawesi Selatan

Objective: This study aimed to describe the resistance of E. coli to several types of antibiotics isolated from water, milker hand swabs, cow udder swabs and milk in the Enrekang dairy farm, South Sulawesi. Methods: Isolation and identification of E. coli refers to SNI 2897:2008 concerning Methods for Testing Microbial Contamination in Meat, Eggs and Milk, and their Processed Products. The test of E. coli resistance to antibiotics by disc diffusion method and interpretation of the results refers to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). The samples were 13 milker hand swabs, 52 cow udder swabs, 52 individual milks, and 13 water used for rearing activities. Results : E. coli isolates (n=64) consisted of 7 isolates from hand swabs, 7 isolates from milking hands, 20 isolates from udder swabs, 31 isolates from milk, and 6 isolates from water. E. coli isolates were resistant to erythromycin and ampicillin as much as 78%, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 34.4%, tetracycline 31%, ceftazidime 25%, chloremphenicol 22%, enrofloxacin 9.4%, and gentamicin 4.6%. The pattern of E. coli resistance to antibiotics showed that the isolates of E. coli multiple drugs were resistant to up to 7 antibiotics at once. Conclusions: E. coli isolates from milk, cows, milk and water in the Enrekang dairy farming area, South Sulawesi has developed resistance to several types of antibiotics and have the potential to spread resistance genes to other bacteria and threaten human, animal and environmental health.

Review of the Zoonotic Importance of Salmonellosis and Associated Risk Factors

Salmonella is one of the most common and significant human and animal food-borne pathogens that cause salmonellosis, which has high medical and monetary costs. Salmonella has a big impact on public health because it can spread zoonotic and foodborne diseases to people. Many domestic and wild animals intestinal tracts serve as the main reservoir for Salmonella, which can result in the direct or indirect contamination of a variety of foods with fecal organisms. Salmonellae are etiological agents of diarrheal and systemic infections. They can be shed in large numbers on the faces of clinical cases and carrier animals, causing contamination of the environment and frequently resulting in subclinical infections. Infection in food animals often leads to contamination of meat, eggs, milk and cheese. The organism can also spread through direct contact with infected humans, animals, or feces contaminated environments. Infected food handlers may also act as a source of contamination for foodstuffs, because of the increasing antibiotic resistance of organisms and companion animals, animals are an important source of Salmonella infection for humans. Salmonella can colonize its hosts by invading, adhering, and bypassing the host’s intestinal defense mechanisms, such as gastric acid, thanks to a variety of virulence markers and determinants, including flagella, capsule, plasmids, adhesion systems, and secretion systems. Diagnosis is based on the isolation of the organism either from tissues collected aseptically at necropsy or from faces, rectal swabs or environmental samples, food products, and feedstuffs; prior or current infection of animals by some agents may also be diagnosed serologically.

Presence of novel and legacy flame retardants and other pollutants in an e-waste site in China and associated risks

Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) residues and their management have been widely identified as potential sources of plasticizers and flame retardants to the environment, especially in non-formal e-waste facilities. This study evaluates the distribution, partitioning and environmental and human impact of organophosphate esters (OPEs), legacy polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the e-waste recycling area of Baihe Tang village, in the Qingyuan county, Guangdong province, China. A plastic debris lump accumulated in a small pond during years was identified as the main source of pollution with ∑pollutants of 8400 μg/g dw, being OPEs the main contaminants detected, followed by PBDEs. This lump produced the contamination of water, sediments, soils and hen eggs in the surrounding area at high concentrations. Plastic-water and water-sediment partitioning coefficients explained the migration of OPEs to the water body and accumulation in sediments, with a strong dependence according to the KOW. Triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), tricresyl phosphate (TCPs) and high chlorination degree PCBs produced a risk in soils and sediments, considering the lowest predicted no effect concentration, while the presence of PCBs and PBDEs in free range hen eggs exceeded the acceptable daily intake. OCPs were detected at low concentrations in all samples. The presence of organic contaminants in e-waste facilities worldwide is discussed to highlight the need for a strict control of EEE management to minimize environmental and human risks.

Heating Rate during Shell Egg Thermal Treatment Elicits Stress Responses and Alters Virulence of Salmonella enterica Serovar Enteritidis; Implications for Shell Egg Pasteurization.

Thermal pasteurization of shell eggs, at various time-temperature combinations, has been proposed previously and implemented industrially. This study was conducted to determine if shell egg heating rate, which varies with different pasteurization implementations, alters the Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis response to different stresses or expression of virulence. Shell eggs, containing Salmonella Enteritidis in yolk, were subjected to a low (2.4°C/min) or a high (3.5°C/min) heating rate during treatments that mimicked the pasteurization temperature come-up stage. The low heating rate protected Salmonella from the following processes: (i) lethal heat at the holding stage, (ii) loss of viability during 8-h cooling after heating, and (iii) sequential antimicrobial ozone treatment. Transcriptional analysis using Salmonella reporter strains revealed that the heat stress response gene grpE was transcribed at 3-fold-higher levels (P = 0.0009) at the low than at the high heating rate. Slow heating also significantly increased the transcription of the Salmonella virulence-related genes sopB (P = 0.0012) and sseA (P = 0.0006) in comparison to fast heating. Salmonella virulence was determined experimentally as 50% lethal dose (LD50) values in an in vivo model. The slow heat treatment mildly increased Salmonella Enteritidis virulence in mice (LD50 of 3.3 log CFU), compared to that in nontreated yolk (LD50 of 3.9 log CFU). However, when ozone application followed the slow heat treatment, Salmonella virulence decreased (LD50 of 4.2 log CFU) compared to that for heat-treated or nontreated yolk. In conclusion, heating shell eggs at a low rate can trigger hazardous responses that may compromise the safety of the final pasteurized products but following the thermal treatment with ozone application may help alleviate these concerns. IMPORTANCE Pasteurization of shell eggs is an important technology designed to protect consumers against Salmonella Enteritidis that contaminates this commodity. A low heating rate is preferred over a high rate during shell egg thermal pasteurization due to product quality concern. However, it is not known whether raising the temperature at different rates, during pasteurizing, would potentially affect product safety determinants. The current study demonstrated that slow heating during the pasteurization come-up stage increased the following risks: (i) resistance of Salmonella to pasteurization holding stage or to subsequent ozone treatment, (ii) recovery of Salmonella during the cooling that followed pasteurization, and (iii) Salmonella's ability to cause disease (i.e., virulence). Our findings inform food processors about potential safety risks to consumers resulting from improper use of processing parameters during shell egg pasteurization. Additionally, treating shell eggs with ozone after heat treatment could alleviate these hazards and protect consumers from natural Salmonella Enteritidis contaminants in shell eggs.

The salmonella effector Hcp modulates infection response, and affects salmonella adhesion and egg contamination incidences in ducks.

Salmonella Entertidis (SE) often causes persistent infections and egg contamination in laying ducks. Hcp, the core structural and effector proteins of the Type VI Secretion System (T6SS) in SE, contributes to bacterial invasion, adhesion and virulence. However, little is known about the effect of Hcp on the host’s infection responses and egg contamination incidences in duck. Herein, we generated an hcp deletion mutant SE MY1△hcp and detected its ability to invade duck granulosa cells (dGCs) and contaminate eggs. In comparison with MY1-infected group, the SE adhesion decreased by 15.96% in MY1△hcp-infected dGCs, and the apoptosis in MY1△hcp-infected dGCs decreased by 26.58% and 30.99% at 3 and 6 hours postinfection, respectively. However, the expression levels of immunogenic genes TLR4, NOD1, TNFα, IL-1β and proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α release were markedly lower in the dGCs inoculated with MY1△hcp than that of the wild type. Besides, the laying ducks were challenged with MY1 or MY1△hcp in vivo, respectively. The lower egg production and higher egg contamination were observed in MY1-infected ducks in comparison with MY1△hcp-infected birds. Furthermore, the host’s infection response of differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) to Salmonella effector Hcp was identified using quantitative proteomics. A total of 164 DAPs were identified between the MY1- and MY1△hcp-infected cells, which were mainly engaged in the immune, hormone synthesis, cell proliferation and cell apoptotic process. Among them, STAT3, AKT1, MAPK9, MAPK14, and CREBBP were the center of the regulatory network, which might serve as key host response regulators to bacterial Hcp. In conclusion, we demonstrated that effector Hcp contributed to not only SE invasion, induction of dGCs apoptosis, and trigger of immune responses, but also enhanced contamination incidences. Also, the STAT3, AKT1, MAPK9, MAPK14, and CREBBP were identified as host’s infection response regulators of bacterial Hcp in duck. Overall, these results not only offered a novel evidence of SE ovarian transmission but also identified some promising candidate regulators during SE infection.

Mammalian Contribution to Transmission of Schistosoma japonicum Infection in West Lore, Poso, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

Studies on the role of domestic animals in the transmission of schistosomiasis japonica in the West Lore Sub-district, Poso District, are still limited despite its importance as zoonosis. This study used a cross-sectional design to determine schistosomiasis prevalence in domestic mammals and identify the relative contribution of each mammalian species’ schistosomiasis transmission in the West Lore Sub-District. Fecal samples were obtained from 209 animals (seven buffaloes, 70 dogs, 44 cattle, 86 pigs, and two horses). The Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory technique was used to detect both the occurrence of S. japonicum egg in feces and the intensity of schistosomiasis infection. The examination of 1852 human fecal samples using the Kato-Katz method was carried out by the Laboratory of Schistosomiasis Lengkeka. The measurement of environmental pollution with S. japonicum eggs and the relative contribution of each species in the transmission was performed. The highest prevalence of S. japonicum infection in animals was in horses (100%; 2/2), cattle (54.55%; 24/44), and pigs (51.16%; 44/86). The prevalence in buffaloes and dogs was 28.57% (2/7) and 32.86% (23/70). Cattle (69.74%) were the main contributors to S. japonicum eggs contamination in the environment, followed by pigs (21.95%) and buffaloes (4.71%). This study reported a high prevalence of schistosomiasis in animals (45.46%), while low human schistosomiasis prevalence (0.59%).

Evidence of environmental transfer of tebuconazole to the eggs in the house sparrow (Passer domesticus): An experimental study

Triazole compounds are among the most widely used fungicides in agroecosystems to protect crops from potential fungal diseases. Many farmland birds spend a significant part of their life cycle in agroecosystems, which may chronically expose them to pesticides. We experimentally tested whether exposure to environmental concentrations of tebuconazole could induce a contamination of the eggs in an agroecosystem sentinel species, the house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Wild-caught adult sparrows were maintained in captivity and exposed (exposed group) or not (control group) for seven months to tebuconazole through drinking water. Eggs were opportunistically collected for the determination of tebuconazole concentration by Liquid Chromatography coupled to tandem Mass Spectrometry in eggs. We found that eggs from exposed parents all contained tebuconazole with a mean concentration of 1.52 ng g−1 dry weight. In eggs from control parents, the tebuconazole concentration was below the limit of quantification (0.23 ng g−1 dry weight) for 11 out of 13 eggs. Thus, our study demonstrates for the first time that environmental exposure of female birds to tebuconazole can translate into egg contamination by this fungicide.

Analysis of circRNA expression in chicken HD11 cells in response to avian pathogenic E.coli.

Avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC), one of the widespread zoonotic-pathogen, can cause a series of diseases collectively known as colibacillosis. This disease can cause thousands of million dollars economic loss each year in poultry industry and threaten to human health via meat or egg contamination. However, the detailed molecular mechanism underlying APEC infection is still not fully understood. Circular RNAs, a new type of endogenous noncoding RNA, have been demonstrated to involve in various biological processes. However, it is still not clear whether the circRNAs participate in host response against APEC infection. Herein, we utilized the high-throughput sequence technology to identify the circRNA expression profiles in APEC infected HD11 cells. A total of 49 differentially expressed (DE) circRNAs were detected in the comparison of APEC infected HD11 cells vs. wild type HD11 cells, which were involved in MAPK signaling pathway, Endocytosis, Focal adhesion, mTOR signaling pathway, and VEGF signaling pathway. Specifically, the source genes (BRAF, PPP3CB, BCL2L13, RAB11A, and TSC2) and their corresponding DE circRNAs may play a significant role in APEC infection. Moreover, based on ceRNA regulation, we constructed the circRNA-miRNA network and identified a couple of important regulatory relationship pairs related to APEC infection, including circRAB11A-gga-miR-125b-3p, circRAB11A-gga-miR-1696, and circTSC2-gga-miR-1649-5p. Results indicate that the aforementioned specific circRNAs and circRNA-miRNA network might have important role in regulating host immune response against APEC infection. This study is the first time to investigate the circRNAs expression profile and the biological function of the source genes of the identified DE circRNAs after APEC infection of chicken HD11 cells. These results would contribute to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms in host response against APEC infection.

Microbiological Quality of Milk Flavored Ready to Drink and Hygiene Practice of Street Vendors

Milk products consumption has become a new trend of healthy lifestyle among students in order to meet appropriate daily nutrients. This study was aimed to measure the total number of microbes found in milk drinks sold around the IPB Dramaga and Cilibende and to determine factors that influence it. Samples were collected from 13 milk vendors within radius of 2 kilometers from outermost point of campus and taken with 3 repetitions. Calculation of the total number of microbes was done by using the plate count method in accordance with SNI 2897-2008 about testing method of microbial contamination in meat, eggs, and milk, as well as processed products and SNI 01-6366-2000 about the maximum limit of microbial contamination in food. Risk factors’ data was taken by interviewing milk drinks seller using structured questionnaire. Factors that influenced microbial contamination were analyzed using Chi-Square test. The results showed that 74.4% of milk drinks samples had a high total number of microbes. The average total number of microbes in Dramaga and Cilibende samples was 1.0 x 105 ± 1.4 x 105 cfu / ml and 1.1 x 107 ± 1.2 x 107 cfu/ml. The total number of microbes are significantly influenced (p<0.05) by equipments used, the cleanliness of the equipment, the cleanliness of the table, washing hands practice, and the distance from the crowd. The high number of microbial contamination in milk drinks could damage the quality of milk and shorten the shelf life.

Potentials and challenges in the isolation and detection of ascarid eggs in complex environmental matrices

Ascarid infections constitute a major concern for both human and animal health risk assessment. Although being effectively transmitted by soil, water and contaminated food, reliable detection of ascarid eggs in environmental media often remains challenging. However, contamination of the environment with ascarid ova has gained more attention as a decisive part of proper risk assessment in recent years. Due to various factors, such as sample matrices, dissociation detergents and flotation solutions, defined and standardised protocols for the isolation of eggs from complex environmental matrices are difficult to establish and therefore limited. Thus, this study reviews common techniques used for the recovery of ascarid eggs from environmental media with special emphasis on sampling strategies, purification procedures and microscopic as well as molecular detection of egg contamination. Despite various advancements, mainly in the field of molecular methods leading to more reliable and sensitive detection, it can be concluded that there is still a need for unified guidelines for sampling and recovery of ascarid eggs derived from complex environmental matrices.

Research Note: Internal organ colonization by Salmonella Enteritidis in experimentally infected layer pullets reared at different stocking densities in indoor cage-free housing

Contamination of eggs by Salmonella has often been identified as a source of food-borne human illness. S. Enteritidis is deposited inside developing eggs when invasive infections of laying hens reach the reproductive organs. The susceptibility of hens in cage-based housing systems to S. Enteritidis has been associated with their stocking density, but the applicability of this information to extensive (cage-free) systems is uncertain. The present study assessed internal organ colonization by S. Enteritidis in egg-type pullets reared at 2 different stocking densities in cage-free housing. Pullets were reared at either 374 cm2 or 929 cm2 of floor space per bird. At 16 wk of age, 4 groups of 72 pullets were moved into isolation rooms simulating commercial cage-free barns; 1/3 of the pullets in 2 rooms were orally inoculated with S. Enteritidis immediately after transfer and pullets in 2 rooms were similarly infected at 19 wk. At 6 and 12 d postinoculation, the pullets were euthanized and samples of liver, spleen, and intestinal tract were removed for bacteriologic culturing. No significant differences (P > 0.05) in S. Enteritidis isolation frequencies from any tissue were observed between high and low density rearing groups following infection at either age. However, S. Enteritidis was found significantly (P < 0.05) more frequently among pullets infected orally at 19 wk than at 16 wk in spleens and intestines. Likewise, the frequency of S. Enteritidis isolation from all birds (inoculated plus contact-exposed) at 19 wk was significantly higher than at 16 wk in livers and spleens. This increased susceptibility to invasive S. Enteritidis infection at reproductive maturity emphasizes the importance of risk reduction at a critical stage in the egg production cycle.

Efficacy of pectin-based caproic acid, caprylic acid, linalool, and cuminaldehyde coatings in reducing Salmonella Heidelberg on chicken eggs

Among the animal derived food products, contamination of poultry eggs, and egg shell surface is one of the major causes for foodborne salmonellosis in the United States. As a means of reducing the pathogen transfer to the internal egg contents, polysaccharide-based coatings containing antimicrobial phytochemicals could potentially serve as a biocontrol strategy for shelled egg products. The current study investigated the efficacy of four GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe)-status plant-derived compounds, namely, caproic acid (CAO), caprylic acid (CAY), linalool (LIN) and cuminaldehyde (CUM), as pectin-based coating treatments, individually or in combination, for reducing Salmonella Heidelberg (SH) on shell eggs. A three-strain mixture of SH (~8.0 log CFU in 50 μL inoculum) was spot-inoculated on surface sterilized white-shelled eggs. Eggs were evenly coated with either pectin-based treatments of CAO (1%), CAY (1%), LIN (1%) and CUM (1%), individually, or a combination of 4 phytochemicals (COMB- each phytochemical at 0.5% v/v level of inclusion). The treated eggs were stored at 4°C and SH counts were enumerated on days 0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 14, and 21 of storage. The study was replicated thrice, 3 eggs/treatment/day time point, and the data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with significance tested at p &amp;lt; 0.05. On day 0, pectin-coated control eggs had ~7.6 log CFU of SH/egg. At the end of refrigerated storage (day 21), pectin-based coating of CAO and CAY at 1% level reduced SH by 2.0–2.5 log CFU/egg (P &amp;lt; 0.05) when compared to controls. In addition, the CUM and LIN based coatings produced 3.0 log and 3.9 log reduction, respectively, in SH counts on eggs by day 21 of storage. Among the treatments with phytochemical combinations, COMB1 [pectin (2%) + Caprylic acid, caproic acid and cuminaldehyde (each at 0.5% level)] was found to be most effective, reducing SH counts to 2.5–3.3 log CFU/egg from day 0 through day 14, and by the end of storage period (day 21), a 3.5 log CFU reduction/egg (p &amp;lt; 0.05) compared to untreated controls. Morphological studies of treated eggs using atomic force microscopy (AFM) have shown that the roughness of eggs can be influenced by a combination of various compounds. Results indicate the potential efficacy of the aforesaid phytochemicals in reducing SH on shell eggs; however, further studies investigating their industrial feasibility and effects on sensory attributes of eggs are warranted.

Microplastics contamination in eggs: Detection, occurrence and status

Nowadays, the widespread distribution of microplastics (MPs) in various foods has received much attention. In this study, eggs were purchased as samples from local supermarkets to detect and analyze the presence of MPs. The digestion method was optimized for eggs to better isolate MPs, which proved MPs indeed exist in eggs, and the average content was 11.67 ± 3.98 particles/egg. The shape and size range of most MPs were spherical and 50–100 μm. The infrared results showed that the main type of MPs in eggs was polyethylene. The number of MPs in egg yolk was higher than that in egg white, and there was no significant change after cooking. In addition, the daily human intake of MPs was estimated. Therefore, the results of this study provided a background for the current status and pollution of MPs in eggs, and proposed the necessary control and preventive measures to avoid this situation.

Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identifies potential regulators in response to Salmonella Enteritidis challenge in the reproductive tract of laying ducks

Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) is a zoonotic and vertically transmitted pathogen, often colonized in the reproductive tract of adult poultry, which can result in direct contamination of eggs and threaten human health. Previous studies have revealed that some pattern recognition receptors and resistance genes were involved in regulating immune responses to SE invasion in birds. However, the role of these immune response genes was not independent, and the interactions among the genes remained to be further investigated. In this study, SE burden and colonization were determined in reproductive tissue after the ducks were SE-infected, and RNA-sequencing was performed to construct co-expression networks by weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). The result showed that SE could be isolated from 22% of infected-birds in any segment of the reproductive tract and the SE was readily colonized in the stroma, small follicle, isthmus, and vagina of the reproductive tracts in morbid ducks. The top central, highly connected genes were subsequently identified three specific modules in the above four tissues at the defined cut-offs (P<0.01), including 60 new candidate regulators and 125 transcription factors. Moreover, those 185 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in these modules were co-expressed. Moreover, the hub genes (TRAF3, CXCR4 and IL13RA1) were identified to act with many other genes through immune response pathways including NF-kappaB, Toll-like receptor, steroid biosynthesis, and p53 signaling pathways. These data provide references that will understand the immune regulatory relationships during SE infection, but also assist in the breeding of SE-resistant lines through potential biomarkers.

Rare presentations of ocular enterobiasis - Case reports.

Enterobius vermicularis, also known as pinworm or threadworm, is a large intestinal nematode which has a high prevalence among children and peripubertal age in our country. Transmission usually occurs by autoinfection like finger contamination of the embryonated eggs deposited by the gravid female worm on the perianal and perineal region. Globally, only a few reports are there regarding the isolation of the parasite from extra-intestinal sites. These are two rare case reports of ocular enterobiasis. The first case was a middle-aged female and the second one was a 14-year-old girl, both of whom were referred from other tertiary care hospitals to Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine and who presented with discharge of live motile worms from their eyes (conjunctiva). In both the cases, identification was done by saline wet mount and direct microscopy of a gravid female worm. Plano-convex embryonated eggs were also observed. The oval embryonated eggs, plano-convex in shape, and the gravid female, with its cervical alae near the anterior end and straight thin pointed tail, were identified under the microscope. Although E. vermicularis is a very common large intestinal parasitic infestation of children and adolescents, it can also rarely be isolated from unusual sites, which should be taken into account for effective diagnosis and treatment.

Multi-Residue Determination of 244 Chemical Contaminants in Chicken Eggs by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry after Effective Lipid Clean-Up

In this study, we aimed to establish a multi-residue analytical method for the simultaneous detection of chemical contaminants in eggs. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), we developed an analytical method that can separate 244 compounds (including β-agonists (25), imidazole and benzimidazoles (31), sulfonamides (22), antihistamines (10), β-lactam (5), insecticides (7), quinolones (24), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (13), and steroidal hormones (38)) within 30 min. A new enhanced matrix removal-lipid (EMR-Lipid) material was used as a purified sorbent in the QuEChERS clean-up method. Excellent linearity (r &gt; 0.9905) was achieved. Additionally, recoveries ranged between 51.33% and 118.28%, with repeatability (RSDr) and reproducibility (RSDwR) in the range of 1.01–14.22% and 1.08–14.96%, respectively. In all of the compounds, low limits of quantification (LOQs) ≤ 5 μg kg−1 were found. Meanwhile, the detection limit (CCα) and detection capability (CCβ) were 1.88–40.60 μg kg−1 and 2.85–407.19 μg kg−1, respectively. In conclusion, the evaluated method was shown to provide reliable screening, quantification, and identification of 244 multi-class chemicals in eggs and was successfully applied in real samples.

Spent fowl as a source of unintentional egg proteins exposure in Canadian food products

The occurrence of egg proteins in products containing spent fowl manufactured under current practices was studied to assess the risk these food products may pose to egg-allergic consumers and to determine if Precautionary Allergen Labelling (PAL) was recommended. Spent fowl slaughtering and processing operations in 2 Canadian facilities were observed. Raw hen pieces (n = 134), coming from 2 facilities, and intermediate and processed products containing spent fowl (n = 57), coming from one facility, were analyzed using ELISA. All samples tested positive for egg proteins. Raw pieces were tested using a qualitative method (i.e., swabbing); estimated egg proteins concentrations suggest the presence of highly contaminated samples (>600 mg/kg in 2 hen wing samples). Swabbing was found to be efficient for rapid detection of eggs in raw hen pieces, but not for quantification. A comparison between swab and grind results showed that egg proteins concentration is underestimated by at least a factor 2 for whole carcasses and a factor 10 for breast, wings and drumsticks, when using the swab protocol. For intermediate and processed products, quantitative measurements indicate that egg protein levels were below 16 mg/kg. Additionally, 88 water samples from chiller tanks were analyzed and indicate that this step could be the cause of the global contamination observed with an increase in egg protein concentrations overtime during the production schedule. As egg contamination is not adequately controlled under the current good production practices, the use of PAL would be recommended for raw spent fowl products.

A Public Health Insight into Salmonella in Poultry in Africa: A Review of the Past Decade: 2010-2020.

Poultry is a cheap source of animal protein and constituent of diets in Africa. Poultry can serve as a reservoir for Salmonella and cause food-borne infections in humans. This review describes Salmonella contamination of food, poultry, and the farming environment, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and serotypes of Salmonella, as well as the farming systems, antimicrobial use (AMU), hygiene, and husbandry conditions used to rear poultry in Africa. Using the PRISMA (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis) guidelines, PubMed, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases were searched using a set of predefined keywords. Full-length research articles in English were examined for the period 2010-2020 and relevant information extracted for the narrative synthesis. Of the articles that met the inclusion criteria, 63.1% were conducted on farms and among households, while 36.9% were undertaken at government-controlled laboratories, which quarantine imported birds, processing plants, and retail outlets. The farming systems were intensive, semi-intensive, and extensive. AMU was described in 11.5% of the studies and varied within and across countries. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella isolates were detected in 30 studies and the prevalence ranged from 12.1% in Zimbabwe to 100% in Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Senegal, and South Africa. A total of 226 different Salmonella serotypes were reported. Twenty-four (19.7%) of the studies reported food-borne Salmonella contamination in eggs, poultry, and poultry products at retail outlets and processing plants. The apparent extensive use of antimicrobials and circulation of MDR Salmonella isolates of various serotypes in Africa is a concern. It is important to implement stricter biosecurity measures on farms, regulate the use of antimicrobials and implement surveillance systems, in addition to food safety measures to monitor the quality of poultry and poultry products for human consumption.