Container Port System Research Articles

Processes and mechanisms of the evolution of container port system in the Yangtze River Delta: An analysis from spatial and network perspectives

the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) has established a large-scale container port system with seaports and Yangtze ports as the mainstay and including other riverports and dry ports, occupying a prominent position in the pattern of national and even the global shipping development. Considering the new trend that the theoretical paradigm of port research has shifted from “spatial” to “network”, and that the focus of research goes from seaports to both seaports and inland ports, this study brings the complexity and uniqueness of the development of the port system in the YRD into the picture. By analyzing the influence of globalization, specialization, marketization, transportation, and greenization on port system development and its pattern formation, this paper elaborates on the gradient process of transportation and services allocation from the coast to the riverside and then to the inland. The evolution of port system is considered to have a temporal gradient between spatial-level transportation expansion and network-level services upgrading, and it is also believed that there is a spatial gradient in logistics supply chain terminalization between coastal and inland areas. Combined with the quantitative analysis from 200 5 to 2020, after entering the stage of port regionalization in the YRD, the container volume is distributed from coastal concentration to inland decentralization at the spatial level, while at the network level, port and shipping service enterprises (PSSEs) maintain a relatively centralized distribution along the coastal areas. At the same time, container volume growth rate fluctuates down, number of PSSEs growth rate fluctuates up, which trend is notable in the seaport. Currently, port regionalization in the YRD is still incomplete; the degree of logistics supply chain terminalization of ports in inland areas is relatively low; and the synergy between spatial and network in the entire YRD region has not yet been formed. This study tries to answer the question of the relationship between different types of ports in the complex port system, which can enrich the theoretical and empirical results of port system research and guide the practice of port and shipping in the YRD.

Study on the hierarchical structure of container port systems along the South China Sea in the context of low carbon emissions

Under the low-carbon background, 37 ports of countries along the South China Sea with capacity ranking in the world’s top 100 container ports are selected as the research object to establish a shipping network, construct a directed dichotomous shipping network, and divide the port tiers after finding the kernel number by using kernel analysis method, respectively, to explore the relationship between tiers and the relationship between ports at the higher level, and then make clear the direction of the improvement for the reduction of carbon emissions. The results show that: the routes sent between container ports in countries along the South China Sea have formed a more stable connection, but the receiving routes are still in a passive position, and the port call relationship is affected by the port hierarchy. High-level ports such as Shanghai Port and Singapore Port undertake the transshipment function of cargo concentration and redistribution within the network. The small-world characteristics among ports such as Singapore Port, Ningbo Port, Haiphong Port, Shenzhen Port, Guangzhou Port, and Linchaban Port are obvious. Based on the results of the empirical analysis, corresponding suggestions are put forward to optimize the structure of the container port system in the countries along the South China Sea and promote the low-carbon development of the sea.

Comparative technical-economic evaluation of offshore container port systems

ABSTRACT The growth trend in the container industry has had a significant operational and infrastructural impact on the ports. In this context, the offshore port systems are expected to be an innovative port system in the effective use of mega container ships by offering operational and structural advantages. This study aims to guide the authorities on whether OCPS is worth investing in, in terms of investment costs. This article also highlights the financial feasibility of an OCPS that can allow countries with difficult nautical access to mega vessels to enter the global trade network. The data in this research were obtained from similar projects and studies with a series of industry assumptions. Overall, these results indicate that OCPS can compete with conventional ports in terms of investment costs, operating costs, and return on investment. Thus, a more sustainable container shipping network can be achieved with the advantages of OCPS.

Club convergence and allometry in Chinese mainland coastal container ports

Research on container port development is of great theoretical and practical significance because of the port's crucial role in the local economic system and regional transportation system. Understanding the development dynamics of container ports is important when formulating related operational and management strategies in the future. Hence, this article investigates the club convergence of 25 coastal ports in mainland China spanning from 2006 to 2020 in terms of container throughput, which signals the development of a port to some extent. The study finds three clubs in China's coastal container port system, with various transitional behaviors indicating that the whole system has shown a tendency toward a slight centralization since 2013 and that small and medium-sized ports are regressing. On this basis, analysis on the container port system is conducted by employing an allometric model. The result shows that allometric relations indeed exist not only among three factors linked with port development, namely, port container throughput, port city's import-export volume, and port maritime connectivity, but also among the three port clubs. Moreover, the allometric relations slightly differ and vary over time for the three port clubs, thus implying that large ports may have different growth mechanisms from small and medium-sized ports. Based on the findings mentioned above, several general policy implications are proposed, which may impact port production, construction, and operations management in mainland China.

Ship emissions in hotelling phase and loading/unloading in Southeast Asia ports

The rapid increase in ship calls and container throughput in Southeast Asia's container port system severely affects the regional environment. This study investigates ship emissions in the hotelling phase, relating mainly to loading and unloading activities at berths. Ship emissions at berths were calculated using the bottom-up approach based on the number of ship calls, power of auxiliary engines, load factor, emissions factor, and in-port hotelling duration of the top ten ports in the region from 2016 to 2020. With a high density of ships and continuity in loading/unloading operations, the Southeast Asia container port system, with several large container ports such as Singapore, Port Kelang, and Tanjung Pelepas, produces enormous emissions, causing air pollution. Further, increased volume of containers and ship calls leads to high pollution in the Southeast Asia container port system, whereas enhanced loading/unloading productivity of ports reduces emissions per TEU.

Economic forces shaping the evolution of integrated port systems - The case of the container port system of China's Pearl River Delta

We investigate the evolution of the container port system of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA), better known as Pearl River Delta (PRD). We analyze the economic drivers that over the years have shaped port development in one of the world's most dynamic regions, embracing three of the world's busiest container ports: Shenzhen, Hong Kong and Guangzhou. Three industry concentration methodologies are employed, each with its own distinct advantages: Concentration Ratios; the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index; and Dynamic Shift-Share Analysis (DSSA). Especially through the latter methodology, DSSA, -used here for the first time in the analysis of the evolution of ‘port systems’- we explain not only the shifts in market shares among the three ‘giants’, but also the underlying economic forces responsible for these shifts and for the relocation of economic activity in the hinterlands of those ports. We analyze the foreland and hinterland strategies of the ports, pursued as a result of rising inter-port competition and fuzzy, intertwined, hinterlands. The paper argues for the need of a more system-wide coordination and collaboration among ports, aiming to avoid overcapacity; duplication of scarce resources; low return on investment and, in general, wasteful competition. It is hoped that our analysis and ensuing recommendations will help other countries, port policymakers and stakeholders, to better understand, and thus exploit, the economic levers which shape the evolution of ports in proximity.

Spatio-temporal evolution of the container port system along the 21st-century Maritime Silk Road

ABSTRACT Research on the spatio-temporal evolution of the port system along the 21st-century Maritime Silk Road (MSR) can reveal the development law of ports. This study adopts the Herfindahl-Hirschman index, rank-size law, and an improved spatial and temporal correlation to investigate the spatial distribution and spatio-temporal correlation characteristics of container ports along the MSR during 2000–2019. The results show that 1) the distribution trends among port clusters have significant differences, and the gravity centre of the port system gradually shifts from Europe to Asia (market shares of European and Asian ports decline from 28.15% to 19.83% and increase from 63.80% to 66.78%, respectively); 2) the port system undergoes periodic ‘decentralisation–agglomeration–decentralisation’, and its structure gradually develops a ‘spindle’ or ‘olive’ shape; 3) the initial effect of MSR arises on the economic development of ports, and the spatial occupation ability of small- and medium-sized port clusters increases steadily; and 4) the spatial and temporal correlation gradually increases. The evolution of temporal correlation is more complicated with a bifractal structure in 2000–2010. This study can provide decision support for port development and thus clarifies the investment environment and construction of MSR.

Operational cost analysis for a container shipping network integrated with offshore container port system: A case study on the West Coast of North America

The number of mega containerships operated by the major container shipping operators has reached a significant level in their fleet. However, the technical and physical insufficiencies of container ports do not allow handling of the latest generation mega containerships. The challenges of handling ultra-large container vessels (ULCV), especially in the main container lines, force port authorities to produce new port solutions. Offshore container port system (OCPS) is one of the recently proposed solutions to deal with the challenges of handling ULCVs more efficiently. These structures provide flexibility in eliminating operational difficulties arising from ULCV dimensions, while also helping to eliminate navigational constraints such as bridge and canal passages, and water draft. This article applies a research approach designed to evaluate the application of an OCPS in a particular geographical region. Based on this application, this research focuses on economic changes likely to arise as a result of the integration of ULCVs and OCPS into the existing container transport network. Accordingly, the developed container transport network model covers both the main route and the short sea shipping (SSS) leg, considering the offshore container port as a hub. In essence, this research is proposing an alternative port system and its associated container transportation network, for those ports that are currently unable to handle ULCV. To solve the problem, the paper presents a mixed- integer linear program model. It utilises a number of different decision variables and constraints in the process of making the model more realistic. Extensive numerical experiments based on realistic Asia-North America (West Coast) container shipping operations show that the model can be solved by Excel Solver. A case study for a container shipping network, using a set of 10 North America (West Coast) container ports linked to Asian markets, is presented herein. However, the robustness of the conclusions is subject to the uncertainty of the used values and the hypotheses made. Even though, the results can serve as an argument to strengthen the belief that the offshore container port concept can be considered as an alternative to conventional container ports.

Revisiting port system delineation through an analysis of maritime interdependencies among seaports

A port system is a system of two or more ports, located in proximity within a given area. In literature, various geographical and functional scales have been identified ranging from complete coastlines to the notions of a ‘range’ and a ‘multi-port gateway region’. Not only does the spatial scale create confusion on the true functional delineation of port systems, but it also complicates a clear understanding of the relational mechanisms at stake within these port systems. This paper revisits existing approaches to and empirical delineations of port systems. Maritime network analysis techniques are deployed to understand hierarchies and interdependencies among nodes of container port systems and sub-systems in North Europe and Northeast Asia. The results provide additional insights on how ports interact from a maritime services’ perspectives and demonstrate whether or not ports which are traditionally considered as belonging to the same port system can in reality be considered forming a fully integrated port system.

Competition, market concentration, and relative efficiency of major container ports in Southeast Asia

This study aims at investigating the degree of market concentration of container ports in Southeast Asia and to associate the concentration tendency with efficient container operations. While Singapore is the busiest container port in the region, its premier position is threatened by the emergence of other container ports in neighbouring countries. Major top ten container ports in Southeast Asia are included in the analysis, and market concentration is evaluated using established measures and analytical techniques such as the Hirschman-Herfindahl Index (HHI), Gini coefficient, and shift-share analysis from 2007 to 2017. A super-efficiency model is then applied to the ports to investigate the association between shift effects and port efficiency. The HHI index indicates that the container port system in Southeast Asia has become ‘moderately concentrated’ with a score of 0.21 in 2017, contrasting with an index of 0.27 in 2007 suggesting it was ‘highly concentrated’ indicating a tendency towards de-concentration. ‘Super efficiency DEA’ results suggest that Laem Chabang and Singapore ports are ‘efficient’ exhibiting efficiency scores higher than one, while the other eight ports are ‘less efficient’. It is also found from the association of the net-shift effects and efficiency scores that Laem Chabang is the only port that is efficient and gaining market share, and, more importantly, and perhaps surprisingly, the ports gaining market share are ‘inefficient’. This study contributes to the literature not only by investigating the concentration tendency of the fast growing container port system of Southeast Asia, but also by associating efficiency evaluations with the market concentration.

Port rationalization and the evolution of regional port systems: the case of Norway

ABSTRACTThis paper explores container port system evolution and port choice from the perspective of a regional or secondary (feeder and short sea) system. Theory predicts that large-scale container port systems tend towards concentration, rationalizing the number of ports, followed by deconcentration. By contrast, regional port systems remain under-researched. Such systems tend to retain their large number of small ports, as the alternative would be serving their long coastlines, small islands and sparse populations by long overland routes or not at all. Norway is a classic feeder and short sea market with a long coastline and dispersed population served by many small ports. The methodology utilizes concentration analysis and semi-structured interviews to explore if the Norwegian system conforms to theories of port concentration and port choice, including issues of regional port governance. Findings show that the Norwegian system demonstrates the same process of concentration and then deconcentration as major port ranges. However, its number of ports has not been rationalized, suggesting that such regional systems may indeed evolve differently to major port ranges. Nevertheless, ongoing discussion of reform in Norway towards regional port governance, similar to other European countries, may eventually result in such rationalization.

Evolvement of Rank-Size Distribution of Regional Container Ports: Case Study of Yangtze River Delta of China

Regional container port operation plays a crucial role in international trade and economic development. Amid fierce competition, orderly running of regional ports is vital. The rank-size status of the regional container ports indicates the orderliness and distribution concentration of port system development and is the focus of port administrations and port operators. This paper introduces the rank-size distribution rule into studies on the development of regional container port systems and proves that Zipf's three-parameter model can effectively describe the evolvement of the rank-size system of regional container ports, taking the container port group in the Yangtze River Delta as an example. This paper finds that the regional container ports tend to become concentrated in high ranks during evolvement. Moreover, the macroeconomic environment has a great impact on the distribution concentration of regional container ports. Economic procyclicality can accelerate port concentration. On the other hand, economic counter-cyclicality will induce port decentralization. The results of this paper are conducive to port administrations and enterprises to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the development of regional container ports and to formulate the proper development plans. The results are also helpful for government departments to well design the development strategies for port and shipping development and better steer the benign development of regional container port groups.

Impact of the port backup service element on container port system based on system dynamics

In order to identify the role of the port backup service elements in the development of the container port, the paper puts forward a system dynamics model between the container port and the port backup service. Firstly, the system dynamics causal relationship path between the container port and the port backup service was established, and the interaction effects of the units in the system were analyzed qualitatively. Then, the empirical analysis based on system dynamics was implemented. Results show that the system dynamics model of the container port and the port backup service is effective; the port backup service elements have positive effects on the development of the container port.

Functional Differentiation and Sustainability: A New Stage of Development in the Chinese Container Port System

Adjacent ports played a significant role in the evolution of the port system. In our study, we selected five pairs (i.e., Dalian–Yingkou, Qingdao–Yantai, Shanghai–Ningbo, Xiamen–Quanzhou, and Shenzhen–Guangzhou) of the most important adjacent ports in China to reveal the recent trend of China unique port system development; how and why will port system development be de-concentrated; and integrate the conceptual modal into in-depth analysis. The major findings are as follows: (1) There is functional differentiation in adjacent ports. To some big ports’ sustainability, they focus on foreign trade while other small ports, in order to achieve sustainable development, they focus on domestic trade; (2) First-mover advantage and dislocation competition is a mechanism of China ports functional differentiation; (3) Shanghai and Ningbo are unique in that both ports are similarly focused on foreign trade because they both have deep-water harbors, excellent geographical location, export-oriented hinterland economy, and close foreign investment relationships.

COMPETITION BETWEEN CONTAINER PORTS IN THE NORTHERN ADRIATIC

World trade has changed in the last decade such that container traffic flows are oriented towards more parts of the European continent. The European container port system is not a homogeneous set of ports; instead it consists of several big ports (e.g., Rotterdam, Hamburg, Algeciras...) and a large number of medium and small ports. Northern Adriatic (NA) ports, namely Rijeka, Koper, Trieste, Venice and Ravenna, are small ports. Each of these ports have different development plans but in varying degrees common hinterlands and costumers. As these ports are located very close one to another, they have to cooperate, but at same time they are competing for their market share. Based on the literature related to port competition and port selection the authors have analysed the throughput in NA ports for the last twenty four years, and in accordance with this, they have prepared a model for expected growth of container throughput in this region. The resulting model of port dynamics includes three characteristics of container throughput: relative growth, market share and container shift. Furthermore, to obtain some insight into cooperation/competition between the NA ports they have set up a simple dynamic model in which they selected ports’ market share fractions for each port as a dynamic variable

Peripherality in the global container shipping network: the case of the Southern African container port system

Regional trade co-operation, economic growth and greater political stability have enabled increased container throughput and container port capacity development. Earlier academic work has indicated that the functional position of this port region in the global maritime network might be shifting from a remote region in the periphery of the network to a more intermediate position. This paper aims to analyze the changing level of peripherality and remoteness of the Southern African container port system as part of the global container shipping network. The central hypothesis is that Southern Africa has moved from a remote shipping region to a more central shipping region in the global network. The methodology consists of the calculation of network measures for Southern African ports. The changing geographical distribution of flows among the main container ports in South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique, Mauritius and Madagascar will also be explored in terms of their respective shipping services, port calling patterns, market structure (in terms of the number of active carriers) and the up-scaling of vessel and port capacity. The overall result is a mapped port hierarchical structure with a clear indication of the shifted maritime centrality of Southern African ports from 1996 to the present decade.

The waves of containerization: shifts in global maritime transportation

This paper provides evidence of the cyclic behavior of containerization through an analysis of the phases of a Kondratieff wave (K-wave) of global container ports development. The container, like any technical innovation, has a functional (within transport chains) and geographical diffusion potential where a phase of maturity is eventually reached. Evidence from the global container port system suggests five main successive waves of containerization with a shift of the momentum from advanced economies to developing economies, but also within specific regions. These waves are illustrative of major macroeconomic, technological and sometimes political shifts within the global economy. They do not explain the causes, but simply the consequences in the distribution in container traffic and growth (or decline). Yet, they provide strong evidence that containerization has a cyclic behavior and that inflection points are eventually reached, marking the end of the diffusion of containerization in a specific port or port range. Future expectations about the growth of containerization thus need to be assessed within an economic cycle perspective instead of the rather linear perspectives.

New tendency of Chinese container port system: 1998–2010

By Hirschman–Herfindahl Index, the paper measures the spatial structure transformation of the Chinese container port system from the perspective of cargo flow in recent 13 years. It indicates that the spatial structure of container port system enters into “the challenge of the periphery” phase as a whole, the decentralization of container flow become the mainstream tendency of the spatial variation of China’s container port system; on the other hand, the spatial structure of container port system shows different characteristic in seven port regions, such as low-level equilibrium, single-gateway, multi-gateway and so on. It is a fact that multi-gateway port region of container port system has formed in Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta region. Economic and foreign trade development, government macro-control and policy guidance, challenge of the periphery, network expansion of the terminal operators and shipping liners are the main driving forces for these new phenomena.

Counterbalancing peripherality and concentration: an analysis of the UK container port system

Over the last four decades, the UK container port system experienced a shift to and concentration in the southeast of the country, close to the English Channel. At the same time, traditional ports in the north and centre of the country have lost importance, despite overall container traffic growth. This paper analyses the evolution of container traffic at UK ports, mapping the patterns of container trade relations, focusing on regional trade specialisations as well as transshipment patterns. The paper identifies a potential deconcentration of container traffic within the UK port system, related to a shift in gateway region for UK trade, increasingly being transshipped through continental ports rather than the traditional southeastern UK ports, as well as a shift in role at UK ports from gateways to transshipment hubs. This deconcentration has potential benefit for regional UK ports, many of which are pursuing significant port expansions to take advantage of these trends. These ports seek to reposition themselves within an emerging feeder market that could reduce their peripherality embedded by the current concentrated UK port and infrastructure system. The paper thus raises questions about port policy and both public and private sector responses to a changing UK port geography.

Development of a container port system in Pearl River Delta: path to multi-gateway ports

A dramatic boom in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) port system has emerged during the past two decades, from having Hong Kong as the only gateway hub to the coexistence of three world-ranked container ports. This paper presents the PRD port system development to date and identifies the underlying forces driving the port system evolution. In particular, the unique process by which the PRD port system went from one gateway port to two ports and the undergoing regionalization with specialization is examined. The network strategy is stressed in shaping the port system structure. With the advantage of a hinterland regionalization, Shenzhen, among the gateway ports in PRD, has acquired the market share from Hong Kong. Shenzhen and Guangzhou ports move from the hinterland-dominated regionalization to a more balanced regionalization based on an established inland transport network, whereas Hong Kong undergoes a foreland regionalization. If the hinterland connection remains relatively weak, the gateway function of the port in Hong Kong will further decline, but its transhipment role will further dominate.