Contact-separation Mode Triboelectric Nanogenerator Research Articles

Nanostructured versus flat compact electrode for triboelectric nanogenerators at high humidity

The triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) is a promising technology for mechanical energy harvesting. TENG has proven to be an excellent option for power generation but typically TENGs output power drops significantly in humid environments. In this work, the effect of electrode’s material on power output, considering smooth and nanostructured porous structures with various surface hydrophobicity, is investigated under various humidity conditions. A vertical contact-separation mode TENG is experimentally and numerically studied for four surface morphologies of Ti foil, TiO2 thin film, TiO2 nanoparticulated film, and TiO2 nanotubular electrodes. The results show that the TENG electrical output in the flat structures such as Ti foil and TiO2 thin film at 50% RH is reduced to 50% of its initial state, while in the nanoporous structures such as nanoparticle and nanotube arrays, this is observed at RH above 95%. The results show that the use of porous nanostructures in TENG due to their high surface-to-volume, and that the process of water adsorption on the pore leads to better performance than the flat surface in humid environments. Based on our study, employing nanoporous layers is vital for nanogenerators either for power generation or active sensor applications at high humidity conditions.

Enhanced performance of triboelectric nanogenerator based on polyamide-silver antimony sulfide nanofibers for energy harvesting

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) are new renewable energy harvesting devices that convert small-scale mechanical movements into electrical energy. Nowadays, the dielectric materials with high tribopotential are being investigated significantly to improve the energy conversion efficiency of TENGs. Nanofibers are widely used as dielectric materials in TENGs due to their high surface area and flexibility. In this study, polyacrylonitrile nanofibers and AgSbS2 doped Nylon 6.6 nanofibers were tested as dielectric layers in spring assisted TENGs. Decorating Nylon 6.6 with AgSbS2 both enhanced the output voltage and markedly advanced the power density of the TENGs, and thus improved triboelectric performance of the TENGs. According to the results, tribopotential of Nylon 6.6 was enhanced as AgSbS2 additive amount increased. Compared to PAN/Nylon 6.6 nanofibers based TENG, PAN/10 wt% AgSbS2@Nylon 6.6 nanofibers based TENG exhibited 2.95 and 1.68 fold enhancement in power density and output voltage, respectively. The peak power density of PAN/10 wt% AgSbS2@Nylon 6.6 nanofibers based TENG reached 6.81 W/m2 under a load resistance of 10 MΩ. From the perspective of the choices of materials and design, the results demonstrate that grafting AgSbS2 nanocrystal materials into Nylon 6.6 nanofibers is an effective way to make better the triboelectric performance of nanofibers mat based TENG. Therefore, the study not only shows a high triboelectric performance of nanofibers based TENG, but also shed on light new glance into the material selection, fabrication, and design for contact-separation mode TENGs.

Power Generation from an Elastic Leidenfrost Hydrogel Piston Enabled Heat Engine

Leidenfrost phenomenon has been observed since 1756. Diverse Leidenfrost phenomenon based heat engines were developed for converting the thermal energy into mechanical form. Limited to the weak force, the Leidenfrost heat engines are rarely reported with usable electric power output. Here we propose an elastic Leidenfrost heat engine based power generator for the demonstration of thermal-to-electric power conversion. A saturated sodium polyacrylate super absorbing polymer sphere is employed as hydrogel piston for harvesting thermal energy to trigger elastic deformation and mechanical bouncing. A lightweight contact separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) plays a role for the conversion from the tiny mechanical input into usable electric power. The dynamics of the hydrogel piston on hot plates, force generation during bouncing and electric power output are measured experimentally. The effects of piston stroke, working temperature, and water absorption rate of the hydrogel piston are discussed. A maximum open-circuit voltage of 22 V and peak power of 280 μW was obtained by a single 2-gram hydrogel piston and the output electric power from the hydrogel piston based power generator successfully lights up 22 commercial LEDs.

Electromechanical coupling modeling and analysis of contact-separation mode triboelectric nanogenerators

An electromechanical coupling model (EMCM) is constructed, and a contact-separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator (CS-TENG) is analyzed. In consideration of the contact-impact force between the moving and fixed electrodes, a piecewise linear differential equation of the moving electrode is derived and combined with the equivalent circuit differential equation to establish the EMCM of a CS-TENG with nonlinear variation of electrode distance. By using the harmonic balance method and arc length continuation technique, the dynamic output characteristics of the CS-TENG are obtained, and the stability of the results is determined. Both numerical integration and dynamic tests are employed to verify the accuracy of the present EMCM. The necessity of considering the nonlinear variation of the electrode distance in the EMCM is fully demonstrated through comparisons with the results of the existing model. Based on these results, the effects of the vibration excitation amplitude, contact stiffness, and structural damping on the output characteristics of the system are discussed. The present EMCM and output characteristics analysis can serve as a reference for the structural optimization of CS-TENGs and further promote their practical engineering applications.

Regulating the high-voltage and high-impedance characteristics of triboelectric nanogenerator toward practical self-powered sensors

In recent years, triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), as a sensor with promising future, is expected to be widely used in many fields. However, the output of TENG has the characteristics of high voltage (> 10–100 V) and high impedance (in MΩ–GΩ), which hinder the TENG’s applications in sensor with considering the operation voltage of conventional electronic components. In this work, two front-end voltage signal processing circuit schemes are proposed, which can convert the high-impedance and high-voltage signal output from TENG into a low-voltage and low-impedance signal. First, we analyzed the circuit model by measuring the output voltage of the TENG sensor and explained the influence of the input impedance of the measuring device on the measurement accuracy. Then, we proposed two kinds of linear voltage signal processing methods which have been demonstrated the feasibility for a contact-separation mode TENG and a rotating type TENG. Finally, we applied the designed front-end signal processing circuit to a portable measurement system, which can measure the voltage signal up to 100 V output from a sliding mode TENG for local display or transmission to receiving terminal wirelessly. These two front-end voltage signal processing circuit solutions have the advantages of structure simplicities and cost-efficiency, and they can be used in combination with common electronic systems. The method can help with various practical TENG-based sensor applications and also provides an economical and simple solution for TENG voltage measurement. Two front-end voltage signal processing circuit schemes and linear voltage signal processing methods are proposed, which can convert the high-impedance and high-voltage signal output from TENG into a low-voltage and low-impedance signal. These two front-end voltage signal processing circuit solutions have the advantages of structure simplicities and cost-efficiency, and they can be used in combination with common electronic systems. The method can help with various practical TENG-based sensor applications and also provides an economical and simple solution for TENG voltage measurement. • Two regulating methods catering to the characteristics of high voltage and high impedance of TENG sensors were proposed. • A high-accuracy small signal circuit towards TENG was designed to replace specialized expensive measuring instruments. • An economical and exquisite solution for signal measurement is conducive to the practical application of TENG sensor.

2-D self-healable polyaniline-polypyrrole nanoflakes based triboelectric nanogenerator for self-powered solar light photo detector with DFT study

This work demonstrates an easy and cost-effective synthesis of PANI-PPY conducting nanoflakes (NFs) with a self-healing capability. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis shows the minimum width of NFs as 30 nm, while HRTEM analysis confirms the shape, size, and semi-crystalline nature of the polymer. These PANI-PPY NFs were used to fabricate a contact separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) based self-powered photosensor which gave the maximum output voltage (149 V), maximum output current (16 µA), current density 0.56 µAcm−2, and power density 83.56 µWcm−2. Detailed literature survey shows the comparative study of PANI-PPY NF’s with other photo-sensing materials. This literature review highlights the tremendous ability of PANI-PPY to self-restore and ultra-fast self-powering nature. This work also demonstrates a very easy and cost-effective method to develop polymeric nanomaterials via temperature-assisted polymerization, which need only a stirrer with a hot plate. Theoretical analysis (DFT calculations using Gaussian 09 and Gauss view 05) shows a consistent increase in stability when the number of molecules in the polymer chains analyzed was increased. The developed self-healing triboelectric nanogenerators exhibited stable performance before and after healing.

Moderately Transparent Chitosan-PVA Blended Membrane for Strong Mechanical Stiffness and as a Robust Bio-Material Energy Harvester Through Contact-Separation Mode TENG

The detection of sustainable materials from naturally available resources using a simple fabrication process is highly important for novel research. Here, we used chitosan-PVA (Chs-PVA) blend films via layer-by-layer casting technologies for generating power through mechanical induction through triboelectric nanogenerators. The proposed Chs-PVA biodegradable film (i.e., thickness of 60 ± 5 μm) is facile, ecofriendly, highly flexible, mechanically strong, cost-effective, and easy to scale up. FT-IR analysis of the ChS-PVA blend membrane showed the strong interactions between the amines of ChS and hydroxyl groups of PVA through chemical cross-linking by hydrogen bonding. More importantly, the triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) values of ChS-PVA films were 3–4 orders of magnitude lower than chitosan films reported before. Layer-on-layer cast films in particular exhibited high tensile strength (15.8 ± 1 MPa) and were more than three times stronger than other polyelectrolyte multilayer films. Both types of films remained stable in an acidic environment. Furthermore, the layer-on-layer-assembled films presented greater open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc) values compared to pure ChS and PVA films. The ChS-PVA membrane can be used as a functional layer to produce charges by collecting get-up-and-go through vertical contact and separation mode TENG counters to the PVDF membrane. The enhancement of Voc and Isc of ChS-PVA TENG were 244 and 1,080% from ChS TENG. Where in the case of PVA TENG, the enhancement of Voc and Isc were increased by 633 and 2,888%, respectively due to the availability of free loan pair on the -NH2 and -OH functional groups. The novel ChS-PVA TENG is a potential candidate for satisfying the tight requirement of an optimized energy harvesting device as an alternate bio-material option for contact-separation mode TENGs.

Scanning triboelectric nanogenerator as a nanoscale probe for measuring local surface charge density on a dielectric film

Inspired by the contact-separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), we propose a technique for local surface charge density measurement based on atomic force microscopy. It is named as scanning TENG, in which a conductive tip tapping above a charged dielectric surface produces an AC between the tip and the dielectric bottom electrode due to electrostatic induction. The Fourier analysis shows that the amplitude of the first harmonic of the AC is linearly related to surface charge density. The results demonstrate that the scanning TENG is a powerful tool for probing nanoscale charge transfer in contact-electrification.

Metal-Amino Acid Nanofibers based Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Thioacetamide Sensor.

The biomolecules offer different metal-binding sites to form a coordination polymer with structural diversity. The coordination directed one-dimensional metal-biomolecule nanofibers (Cu-Asp NFs) designed using copper as metal ion and aspartate as a ligand for triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) is reported here. The different characterization techniques reveal the detailed characteristics of the synthesized Cu-Asp NFs. The robust coating of the Cu-Asp NFs is achieved using a simple tape cast coater. The bending and water dipping studies suggest the stability of the coated material. The relative polarity test and Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) reveal the position of Cu-Asp in the triboelectric series. The Cu-Asp NFs and Teflon are used as the active material for the fabrication of freestanding mode (NF-TENG) and contact-separation mode (cNF-TENG) TENG. The NF-TENG generates an output of 200 V and 6 μA. The simple ion deposition technique enhances the voltage, current, and transferred charge of cNF-TENG by 2.5, 8, and 3 times. The use of the material for the single electrode sliding mode device further confirms the coated material's stability and robustness. A selective self-powered thioacetamide sensor is developed with the cNF-TENG, which exhibits a sensitivity of 0.76 v mM-1. Finally, NF-TENG is demonstrated for powering up numerous portable electronics.

Polymer Based Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Cost‐Effective Green Energy Generation and Implementation of Surface‐Charge Engineering

Performance of triboelectric nanogenerators for harvesting mechanical energy from the ambient environment has been limited by structural complexity, cost‐effectiveness, and mechanical weakness of materials. Herein, a cost‐effective vertical contact separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator using polyethylene (PE) and polycarbonate (PC) in a regular digital versatile disc is reported. This cost‐effective nanogenerator with simplified structures is able to generate an open‐circuit voltage of 215.3 V and short‐circuit current of 80 μA. The effects of the distance of impact and the air gap between the triboelectric layers have also been tested from 3 to 9 cm, and 0.25 to 1 cm, respectively. It is determined that 0.5 cm is the optimal air gap. The nanogenerator is also tested in different real‐life scenarios including stresses produced by a moving car, walking, and a rolling skateboard over the nanogenerator. The surfaces of the triboelectric layers are further modified by surface‐charge engineering which induced a 460% increase in the output power. These tests reveal a significant electrical response and mechanical stability under stress. In summary, this study demonstrates that the relatively inexpensive PE and PC triboelectric pair has the potential to be used for highly efficient, mechanically robust triboelectric nanogenerators.

On the controlled adhesive contact and electrical performance of vertical contact-separation mode triboelectric nanogenerators with micro-grooved surfaces

The triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) is a new energy technology to convert mechanical energy into electricity based on contact electrification and electrostatic induction. Altering the alignment state of TENG with two micro-grooved surfaces is a simple way to achieve controlled electrical output. To guide the output regulation of TENG with micro-grooved surfaces and avoid causing interface separation failure, comprehensive analysis based on adhesive contact mechanics is essential. In this paper, the relation between charge density and contact stress is measured. Numerical adhesive contact and electrical models of TENG with grooved surfaces considering the charge density-contact stress relation and material properties are established to quantitatively analyze the effects of alignment angle, applied pressure and loading time on adhesive contact and electrical performance. It is shown that there exists an exponential relation between charge density and contact stress. Alignment angle of grooved surfaces in TENG significantly affects the adhesive contact and electrical performance. Under low and high applied pressures, the variations of output voltage with alignment angle are 630.5% and 301.1%, respectively, while same pull-off force variation of 532.6% is exhibited. Large pull-off force usually comes along with high voltage output, except for alignment angle of 10°, at which relative high voltage and low pull-off force are exhibited. Strategies for the output regulation of TENG with grooved surfaces without causing interface separation difficulty are presented.

A Contact-Mode Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Energy Harvesting from Marine Pipe Vibrations.

Structural health monitoring is of great significance to ensure the safety of marine pipes, while powering the required monitoring sensors remains a problem because the ocean environment is not amenable to the traditional ways of providing an external power supply. However, mechanical energy due to the vortex-induced vibration of pipelines may be harvested to power those sensors, which is a convenient, economic and environmentally friendly way. We here exploit a contact-separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) to create an efficient energy harvester to transform the mechanical energy of vibrating pipes into electrical energy. The TENG device is composed of a tribo-pair of dielectric material films that is connected to a mass-spring base to guarantee the contact-separation motions of the tribo-pair. Experimental tests are conducted to demonstrate the output performance and long-term durability of the TENG device by attaching it to a sample pipe. A theoretical model for the energy harvesting system is developed for predicting the electrical output performance of the device. It is established that the normalized output power depends only on two compound variables with all typical factors taken into consideration simultaneously. The simple scale law is useful to reveal the underlying mechanism of the device and can guideline the optimization of the device based on multi-parameters analyses. The results here may provide references for designing contact-mode TENG energy harvesting devices based on the vibration of marine pipes and similar structures.

Effects of interfacial acid–base on the performance of contact–separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator

Triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) has demonstrated huge potential in biomedical monitoring, robotic sensors, industrial environmental monitoring, and so on. The harsh environment with different pH may have direct impacts on the performances of TENG. In this work, we systematically investigated the effects of interfacial acid–base on the performance of contact–separation mode TENG. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) exhibited the accelerating effect of acid–base on hydrolysis of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Contact electrification on PDMS surfaces in macro and nanoscale both showed the increased charge densities with the increase of the H+ and OH− concentration, respectively. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and FTIR of the PDMS with different contact cycles indicated the heterolytic cleavage of the main chain upon contact, which can produce mechano radicals and induce electron transfer from SiO2 to this lowest free molecular orbital (LUMO) of the PDMS naturally. More produced mechano radicals by cleavage induce more electron transfer, contributing to the increasing trend of contact electrification with ion concentration. These results have revealed the effect mechanism of acid–base on the polymer-based TENG's performance, which can provide guidance for the development of polymer-based TENGs and self-powered smart sensors in harsh environment.

Achieving Ultrahigh Output Energy Density of Triboelectric Nanogenerators in High-Pressure Gas Environment.

Through years of development, the triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) has been demonstrated as a burgeoning efficient energy harvester. Plenty of efforts have been devoted to further improving the electric output performance through material/surface optimization, ion implantation or the external electric circuit. However, all these methods cannot break through the fundamental limitation brought by the inevitable electrical breakdown effect, and thus the output energy density is restricted. Here, a method for enhancing the threshold output energy density of TENGs is proposed by suppressing the breakdown effects in the high‐pressure gas environment. With that, the output energy density of the contact‐separation mode TENG can be increased by over 25 times in 10 atm than that in the atmosphere, and that of the freestanding sliding TENG can also achieve over 5 times increase in 6 atm. This research demonstrates the excellent suppression effect of the electric breakdown brought by the high‐pressure gas environment, which may provide a practical and effective technological route to promote the output performance of TENGs.

Simultaneously Enhancing Power Density and Durability of Sliding‐Mode Triboelectric Nanogenerator via Interface Liquid Lubrication

AbstractThe sliding‐mode triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) exhibits higher charge transfer efficiency for extracting mechanical energy than the contact–separation mode TENG, but the energy loss induced by air breakdown as well as the inferior durability seriously limits its practical applications. Here, an effective strategy via interface liquid lubrication is proposed for enhancing output performance of both sliding‐mode alternative current TENG (AC‐TENG) and direct current TENG (DC‐TENG). Due to the improved breakdown field strength requirement and reduced electrostatic field strength in the microgap between the triboelectric layer and electrode, interface liquid lubrication suppresses the interfacial electrostatic breakdown and reduces charge loss after the triboelectrification process, and thus more electrostatic charges are harvested by the AC‐TENG via electrostatic induction and the DC‐TENG via electrostatic breakdown. The maximum output power density of the lubricated sliding‐mode TENG is enhanced by more than 50% (3.45 W m−2 Hz−1) compared to the device without lubrication, and shows excellent durability over more than 500 000 operation cycles. This work provides an effective approach to improve the electric performance and durability of sliding‐mode AC‐TENG and DC‐TENG, which further promotes the practical applications of TENGs.

On the material-dependent charge transfer mechanism of the contact electrification

Abstract Although contact electrification (CE) has been discovered for more than 2600 years, its dominant charge transfer mechanism by either electrons or materials/ions continues to elude the scientific community. Here, the material-dependent CE mechanism with a model established through the extracted potential barrier height W is demonstrated via the contact-separation mode triboelectric nanogenerator as the tool. The results indicate the W in metal/polymer pairs is mainly determined by the polymer rather than the metal, implying the electron transfer dominant mechanism. On the contrary, the W extracted in CE of polymer/polymer pairs may be related to multiple material surfaces and/or other factors such as chemical reactions, indicating the possible co-existence of both electron transfer and material transfer mechanisms. This material-dependent charge transfer mechanism may give a potential answer to the millennium debate on the CE, which is essential for controlling the surface charge level upon requirements of applications.

Fabrication of flexible self-powered humidity sensor based on super-hydrophilic titanium oxide nanotube arrays

Stable and flexible super-hydrophilic nanotubular-based titanium oxide electrode has been utilized as the active electrode of self-powered humidity sensor. TiO2 nanotubular electrodes fabricated through anodization method and utilized in combination with Kapton electrode as the triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG). Vertical contact-separation mode TENG performance has been examined in various range of frequencies and the maximum output voltage and current more than 300 V and 40 μA respectively with maximum power of 1.25 ± 0.67 mW has been achieved at 4 Hz. The fabricated TENG has been employed as the active self-powered humidity sensor. Super-hydrophilic feature of TiO2 nanotubes resulted in full absorption of water molecules, and noticeable decrease in charge transfer across two triboelectric materials upon increasing humidity. The TiO2-based TENG sensor was exposed to various relative humidity (RH) and the results showed that by increasing the humidity the output voltage and output current decreased from 162.24 ± 35.99 V and 20.4 ± 4.93 μA at RH = 20% to 37.92 ± 1.54 V at RH = 79% and 40.87 88 6.88 ± 1.7 μA at RH = 84%, respectively, Which shows the responsivity more than 300%. This method of measuring humidity has a simple and cost-effective fabrication that has various applications in many fields such as industry and medicine.

Sand-polished Kapton film and aluminum as source of electron transfer triboelectric nanogenerator through vertical contact separation mode

ABSTRACT Contact electrification is a direct triboelectrification method for producing current through charge transfer when two different differentiated materials have brought into contact. For the first time, we developed a simple triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) where the electronic charges were realized through contact separation mode between sand-polished Kapton (SPK) and Al surface. Here, we demonstrated the energetic interfacial contact between these surfaces and observed satisfactory output performance. The novel SPK-TENG produced 40 V and 2.8 µA, of open-circuit voltages (V oc) and short-circuit currents (I sc) at 4 Hz, respectively. Mainly, the SPK-TENG was dramatically increased up the performance of TENG, up to 40% of V oc and 42% of I sc, with respect to the Kapton film because the mobility of electrons is very high on the device surface compared to the other pristine Kapton film. The fabricated SPK-TENGs were good candidates for satisfying the need for alternative contact separation mode TENGs.

Optimization of TriboelectricNanogenerator for Small Power Electronics

TriboelectricNanogenerators (TENGs) is a new era energy source to power portable small electronic devices. This paper presents the fabrication of vertical contact separation mode TENGs. Three different TENGs device prototypes are fabricated: (1) Kapton-Aluminium; (2) Teflon-Aluminium and (3) Room Temperature Vulcanizing (RTV)-Aluminium. To optimize the performance of TENGs the effect of various parameters such as thickness of dielectric layer, contact time between two layers and contact separation movement of layers have been observed. Experimental result demonstrates that the output voltage increases initially and then decreases with the increase in thickness of dielectric layer. It is also reported that output voltage of TENGs decreases and increases with the increase in contact time and contact separation movement respectively. In this work, an output voltage obtained from TENGs is suitable to drive applications based on small power electronics.

Dielectric-Metal Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Ocean Wave Impact Self-Powered Applications

This paper describes the effect of oscillatory frequencies caused by ocean wave impact on the output performance of dielectric-metal contact separation mode triboelectric nanogenerators (DMCS-TENG). The triboelectric effect is generated as a result of regular, non-uniform contact between a dielectric layer which gains electrons (negative triboelectric material) and a conductive layer that loses electrons (positive triboelectric material). Impact testing was used to characterize arc-shaped dielectric-metal single electrode triboelectric nanogenerators (DMSE-TENG) with different triboelectric material combinations based on their output power generation, using a 40-mm ball bearing to apply a 12-N force impulse. It was found that the best dielectric-conductor combination for the DMCS-TENG performance was polyimide and PDMS in contact with the conductor layers of aluminum and silver conductive cloth tape. Therefore, in the range of operation from 30 to 300 Hz with an amplitude acceleration of 319.62 to 559.29 mm/s <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> , the maximum generated output power, power density, and total energy conversion efficiency of the device, made with polyimide and honeycomb patterned aluminum foil, can reach up to 778.43 μW, 12.16 μW/cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> , and 15.85 % respectively, for a load resistance of 10 MQ. The output power performance of the DMCS-TENG shows an enhancement by a factor of 2.3 with a honeycomb-patterned aluminum foil, by increasing the surface charge density between the layers in contact, relative to flat aluminum foil. Additionally, through the integration of the energy harvester prototype into a water wave generator tank, an output power density of 169.218 mW/m <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> was reached, where it is expected to generate output power energy around 3.05 W, over an area of 18 m <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> with wave sizes among 0.3 to 4 m. This paper demonstrates that the device can function as an energy harvesting mechanism for ocean wave sensing applications that require self-powering.