Rail Contact Research Articles

Adaptive robust constraint-following control method for improving carbody hunting stability of high-speed trains

The low-frequency carbody hunting motion of high-speed trains (HSTs) frequently occurs due to the complex operating environment and deterioration of wheel–rail contact conditions. It not only affects ride comfort but also poses a risk of derailment safety accidents for HSTs. In such scenarios, traditional passive suspension systems struggle to ensure satisfactory dynamic performance of HSTs. However, active suspension systems can offer an effective solution. To enhance the low-frequency carbody hunting stability and environmental adaptability of HSTs, this study proposes a novel adaptive robust displacement inequality constraint following control (AICFC) method for active suspension utilising the beneficial nonlinearity inspired by bio-inspired structures (BIS). The effectiveness of the proposed AICFC-BIS method is validated through numerical simulations comparing it with other control strategies. Simulation results show that the AICFC-BIS method can effectively suppress low-frequency carbody hunting motion and improve the dynamic performance of HSTs. Compared with conventional passive suspensions and other active suspensions, HSTs equipped with AICFC-BIS active suspension exhibit significantly reduced operational safety risk and improved ride comfort indices while being energy efficient.

Oновлення парку рухомого складу українських залізниць з орієнтацією на інтеграцію в європейські транспортні мережі

The strategic aim of further development of the Ukrainian railways is rolling stock and infrastructure renewal to meet the demands of the Ukrainian economy, including a rapid integration into the European transport service. The paper presents the results of recent studies conducted at the Department of Statistical Dynamics and Multidimensional Mechanical System Dynamics, the Institute of Technical Mechanics of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the State Space Agency of Ukraine, with the aim to solve important problems in the development of the Ukrainian railway transport. The studies were aimed at developing scientifically substantiated decisions on Ukrainian rolling stock renewal oriented at integration into the European railway networks. To do this, a cycle of theoretical and experimental studies was conducted at the department. Consideration was given to the problem of wheel–rail contact pair improvement by identifying a wheel profile that would offer an acceptable car ride performance and acceptable conditions of car–rail interaction both on the Ukrainian and the European railways and reduce vehicle and rail wear. The car ride performance of an articulated passenger train was simulated mathematically for its motion at different speeds along a track of arbitrary alignment and profile, and the effect of different car and track parameters on the ride performance was estimated. Energy-absorbing devices were developed to increase the passive safety of a speedy locomotive-hauled passenger train and a multiple-unit train in emergency collisions with obstacles according to the Ukrainian Standard DSTU EN 15227. Service loads on the load-bearing components of swap-body freight cars were estimated, and recommendations were developed on fasteners that would provide safe transportation of various freights in swap-body cars. Based on the results of the studies, a number of design solutions were proposed for Ukrainian railway vehicle components. Their implementation will offer a sizeable economic benefit, increase the train speed and safety, improve the vehicle–track interaction, and facilitate the formation of an up-to-date home railway complex and its integration into the European railway networks.

Research on wheel–rail impact dynamics due to combined rail weld irregularities and polygonal wheel effects considering 3D contact geometry

The geometric irregularities of rail welds and polygonal wheels are common defects observed in high-speed railways, leading to the generation of high-frequency impact forces and vibrations in the wheel–rail contact system. This research establishes a novel vehicle-track coupled dynamic model that incorporates a 3D wheel–rail contact model using meshing grid and conjugate gradient methods to study the high-magnitude wheel–rail impact forces caused by rail weld irregularities and polygonal wheel combinations. The primary objective of this study is to develop a precise 3D contact model that incorporates the actual geometry of wheel and rail surface irregularities into the calculation of vehicle-track dynamic interactions. The study evaluates the effects of 3D rail weld irregularities and polygonal wheels on wheel–rail dynamic interaction by comparing results with those obtained from a conventional vehicle-track coupled model that considers a 2D contact model. The results show that the lengths and depths of polygonal wheels and rail weld irregularities, as well as vehicle speeds, significantly increase the wheel/rail dynamic impact forces. The results also indicate that the widening of irregularities not only significantly affects the wheel–rail contact force but also has an important influence on the contact stiffness.

A new insight into the macroscopical cause of wheel rolling contact fatigue on Y25 wagons – axle box longitudinal guidance deviation

Wheel rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is a tricky issue for the railway industry. It is recently reported that the wheel RCF on Y25 bogies is more severe compared to other bogies with similar primary suspension structures. The axle box longitudinal guidance deviation (ALGD) could be a reason for the wheel RCF according to field observations. In this paper, a Y25 wagon dynamics model is firstly established and validated. The ALGD is modelled using non-linear force elements. The wheel damage function is used for RCF evaluation. Then, effects of ALGDs on force balances of wheelsets are preliminarily analysed in a quasi-static state. Four different scenarios for ALGDs are simulated and corresponding wear numbers are calculated. It proves that the wheelset lateral displacement, wheel‒rail contact forces, and RCF index will dramatically increase with the ALGD value. Potential wheel‒rail contact zones for the bogies with ALGDs are basically consisted with the recorded wheel RCF zones. Finally, maintenance suggestions are proposed according to the wheelbase deviation. The ALGD threshold should be 1.0 and 2.75 mm for the prevention on wheel RCF and wear, respectively. The results of this paper may provide a new insight into the macroscopical cause of wheel RCF on Y25 bogies.

Finite element analyses of rail head cracks: Predicting direction and rate of rolling contact fatigue crack growth

A numerical framework in 3D for predicting crack growth direction and rate in a rail head is presented. An inclined semi-circular surface-breaking gauge corner crack with frictionless crack faces is incorporated into a 60E1 rail model. The investigated load scenarios are wheel–rail contact, rail bending, thermal loading, and combinations of these. The crack growth direction is predicted using an accumulative vector crack tip displacement criterion, and Paris-type equations are employed to estimate crack growth rates. Results are evaluated along the crack front for varying crack radii and crack plane inclinations. Under the combined load cases and in the presence of tractive forces, the crack is generally predicted to go deeper into the rail than under pure contact. Crack growth rates for the combined load cases are higher than (but still close to) that for pure contact. A tractive force will increase growth rates for smaller cracks, whereas a steeper (45°) inclination will decrease the growth rate under the studied conditions as compared to a shallower (25°) inclination. Results should be of use for rail maintenance planning where deeper cracks require more machining efforts.

DEM modelling of surface indentations caused by granular materials: application to wheel–rail sanding

The presented surface indentation model is one step towards building a DEM model for wheel–rail sanding. In railways, so-called low-adhesion conditions can cause problems in traction and braking, and sanding is used to overcome this problem. Sand grains are blasted towards wheel–rail contact, fracture repeatedly as they enter the nip and are drawn into the contact and then increase adhesion. Research on this topic has mostly been experimental, but focussed on adhesion enhancement measurement. Thus, physical mechanisms increasing the adhesion are not well understood. Previous works involved experiments and DEM modelling of single sand grain crushing tests under realistic wheel–rail contact pressures of 900 MPa, focusing on sand fragment spread and formation of clusters of solidified fragments. In the experiments, indents in the compressing steel plates were also observed, which are also observed on wheel and rail surfaces in railway operation. These are now modelled by adapting an existing surface indentation model from literature to the case of surface indentations caused by granular materials. Two test cases are studied, and experimental spherical indentation tests for model parametrisation are presented. In a proof of concept, the mentioned single sand grain crushing tests under 900 MPa pressure are simulated including the surface indentation model. This work contributes to DEM modelling of wheel–rail sanding, which is believed to be a good approach to deepen the understanding of adhesion increasing mechanisms under sanded conditions.

A comprehensive wheel–rail contact model incorporating sand fragments and its application in vehicle braking simulation

Increasing the wheel–rail adhesion coefficient by spreading sand grains to the wheel–rail interface is a common approach to improve the traction and braking efficiency of trains. To simulate this process accurately, two highlights are presented in this paper. Firstly, this paper proposes a wheel–rail contact model considering sand fragments, a third body, based on the non-Hertzian theory, which includes a random sand-grain generator and a sand crushing model. The proposed wheel–rail model is used to analyze the wheel–rail adhesion state after sand grains enter the wheel–rail contact interface. How sand particles change the distribution of normal force and tangential force to affect the wheel–rail adhesion is clarified and, in addition, the influence of the parameters of sand fragments on the wheel–rail adhesion coefficient is given. Secondly, a vehicle system dynamics model considering sanding and wheel slip protection (WSP) control is developed to analyze the effect of sanding on braking distance and wheel slip during braking processes. The wheel–rail contact model and the vehicle system dynamics model presented in this paper can support the study of more effective sanding and adhesion enhancement devices.

Prediction of rail wear band evolution under excitation by periodic track irregularities and its influence on vehicle dynamic performance

Periodic track irregularities (PTIs) are an important and sensitive source of vehicle vibration and have attracted considerable attention from railway researchers. However, previous studies have mainly focused on the irregularities themselves, with limited investigation of how the rail wear band (RWB) generated by PTIs excitation affects vehicle responses. To assess this, a three-dimensional rail wear prediction model is developed in this study to simulate the evolution of the RWB under PTIs conditions and then the effect of RWB excitation on the vehicle dynamic performance is investigated. The results show that the spatial trace of the rail contact points generated by the PTIs also exhibits clear periodic characteristics. Accordingly, the distribution pattern of the RWB also reflects these periodic features. The excitation of the periodic rail wear band (PRWB) has a negative effect on the vehicle running stability, especially when the vehicle is traveling at speeds that induce coupling resonance, which exacerbates the consequences. As the wear level of the PRWB increases, there is also an escalation in the vibration of the carbody. Furthermore, the amplitude of the change in the wheelset balance position resulting from variations in rail profile is found to serve as an effective descriptor for characterizing the wear intensity of PRWB, and the vibration amplitude of the carbody exhibits a clear linear correlation with PRWB excitation. The research results are helpful for understanding the relationship between PRWB excitation and vehicle vibration behavior and serve as a theoretical basis for track maintenance and profile optimization.

The Wheel–Rail Contact Force for a Heavy-Load Train Can Be Measured Using a Collaborative Calibration Algorithm

The wheel–rail contact force is a crucial indicator for ensuring the secure operation of a heavy-load train. However, obtaining the real-time wheel–rail contact force of a heavy-load train is a challenging task as, due to safety considerations, it is not possible to install instrumented wheelsets on heavy-load trains. This work presents a novel approach to quantify the wheel–rail contact force of a heavy-load train, utilizing a cooperative calibration methodology. First, a ground measurement platform for the wheel–rail contact force of a heavy-load train is constructed on a selected rail section. The railway inspection car’s wheel–rail contact force measurement system is fine-tuned using a multilayer perceptron calibration approach, and the ground platform then uses the results to fine-tune the railway inspection car’s examined wheelset. Second, based on actual measured data on the wheel–rail contact force of a heavy-load train, and using the golden jackal optimization algorithm, the multilayer perceptron correction approach is employed to create a data relationship mapping model. This model correlates the corrected data on the wheel–rail contact force obtained from the railway inspection car with the wheel–rail contact force of a heavy-haul train with an axle load of 25 tons, and the precision of the mapping is guaranteed. Finally, by combining the wheel–rail contact force correction method for the railway inspection car and the contact force mapping model between the railway inspection car and the heavy-load train, collaborative calibration of the wheel–rail contact force of the heavy-load train is realized. The experimental results under two working conditions show that this method can realize high-precision, real-time measurement of the wheel–rail contact force of a heavy-load train. For the working condition of a straight-line section, the calibration error was within 1.593 kN, and the MAPE was 0.105%; for the working condition of a curved-line section, the calibration error was 2.344 kN, and the RMSE was 184.72 N.

Dynamic modelling and experimental validation of a dynamic track stabiliser vehicle–track spatially coupling dynamics system

A dynamic track stabiliser vehicle is an unconventional vehicle for maintaining the quality of ballasted tracks, and its dynamic performance has a significant impact on its working efficiency. For the first time, this paper proposes a comprehensive dynamic track stabiliser vehicle–track coupled vertical and lateral multi-body dynamics model based on classical vehicle–track coupling dynamics theory. In this model, detailed attention is given to the vertical, lateral, roll, yaw, and pitch motions of the components, including the vehicle body, bogies, wheelsets and stabilisers. The Shen–Hedrick–Elkins theory is employed to describe non-linear wheel–rail contact relationships between the bogie wheelsets and the rails, and three various methodologies are adopted to address complicated wheel–rail interaction problems between the stabiliser wheelsets and the rails. This comprehensive multi-body dynamics model enables a detailed investigation of the dynamic performance of the system under complex excitations, such as the lateral excitation of the stabilisers and vertical downward pressure exerted by hydraulic cylinders, especially the dynamic response of the stabilisers in the vibration environment of the complete vehicle. The dynamics model was fully validated by comparing its results with time- and frequency-domain data obtained from field tests. The results indicate that the model is capable of being used for analysis of the dynamic performance of dynamic track stabiliser vehicles.

Wheel Wear Modeling and Re-Profiling Strategy Optimization Based on the Maintenance Data of a Three-Axle Bogie Locomotive

Wear caused by wheel–rail contact forces is inevitable during vehicle operation, which has an important impact on the security and stability of train operation. Therefore, it is of great significance to study wheel wear patterns and optimize re-profiling strategies to extend service life. Based on the wheel wear data of three-axle bogie locomotives, this paper proposes a data-driven hybrid wheel wear model and optimization schemes of the re-profiling strategy. The wear model consists of a wheel flange thickness wear model, a wheel diameter wear model, and a re-profiling ratio coefficient model. Then, utilizing the above models, the optimization of the re-profiling strategy for different axle position wheels is raised, and the optimization of the complete vehicle re-profiling strategy is presented by considering the wheel diameter difference. Finally, a wheel data-driven analysis platform was developed to enable the management and utilization of wheel maintenance data. Analysis of extensive maintenance data indicates that the guide wheels wear the fastest, approximately 22.2% higher than the middle wheels, which wear the slowest. The re-profiling ratio coefficient model indicates that the ratio coefficient increases as the wheel flange thickness before re-profiling increases. Simulations demonstrate a longer expected wheel life with a flange thickness between 28 and 32.5 mm. Compared to measured values, the optimization strategy reduces complete vehicle re-profiling by 21.5%. Through the initial implementation at CRRC Dalian Locomotive Ltd, it has become evident that this methodology offers a viable solution to enhance the service longevity of locomotive wheels.

An improved model for the nonlinear simulation of the high‐speed vehicle‐track‐bridge coupling system under seismic shaking

AbstractWith the continuous development of high‐speed railway (HSR) construction technology, many HSR bridges are close to near‐fault earthquake zones. Due to the short warning time for earthquakes occurring in these areas, the scene of trains running on the HSR bridges under earthquakes will become more and more common. In order to effectively evaluate the train running safety performance on the HSR bridge under earthquakes, an improved model for the nonlinear simulation of the high‐speed vehicle‐track‐bridge (VTB) coupling system under seismic shaking is proposed. The commercial finite element software was utilized for the general modeling of track‐bridge structure, and nonlinear hysteric behaviors of key components were realized by using the local nonlinearity correction method. By adopting the unconditional stable explicit dynamic integration algorithm and an efficient wheel–rail contact model, an explicit dynamic solution framework is established. It can efficiently solve the nonlinear coupled vibration of the VTB system under earthquakes. Finally, based on the improved model developed in this paper, the influence of hysteretic behaviors of bridge bearings on the nonlinear coupling vibration of the VTB system under near‐fault earthquakes is discussed.

Running safety assessment method of trains under seismic conditions based on the derailment risk domain

The accurate assessment of running safety during earthquakes is of significant importance for ensuring the safety of railway lines. Currently, assessment methods based on a single index suffer from issues such as misjudgment of operational safety and difficulty in evaluating operational margin, making them unsuitable for assessing train safety during earthquakes. Therefore, in order to propose an effective evaluation method for the running safety of trains during earthquakes, this study employs three indexes, namely lateral displacement of the wheel–rail contact point, wheel unloading rate, and wheel lift, to describe the lateral and vertical contact states between the wheel and rail. The corresponding evolution characteristics of the wheel–rail contact states are determined, and the derailment forms under different frequency components of seismic motion are identified through dynamic numerical simulations of the train–track coupled system under sine excitation. The variations in the wheel–rail contact states during the transition from a safe state to the critical state of derailment are analyzed, thereby constructing the evolutionary path of train derailment and seismic derailment risk domain. Lastly, the wheel–rail contact and derailment states under seismic conditions are analyzed, thus verifying the effectiveness of the evaluation method for assessing running safety under earthquakes proposed in this study. The results indicate that the assessment method based on the derailment risk domain accurately and comprehensively reflects the wheel–rail contact states under seismic conditions. It successfully determines the forms of train derailment, the risk levels of derailment, and the evolutionary paths of derailment risk.

A Parameter-Driven Methodology of Wheel Flat Modeling for Wheel–Rail Impact Dynamics

A wheel flat is a typical wheel defect that significantly impacts the wheel–rail system, posing substantial challenges to vehicle operation safety. In the existing literature, the wheel flat plane model does not account for the contribution of the width direction to the impact response and thus cannot accurately reveal the wheel–rail contact state with a flat. This paper systematically proposes a three-dimensional analytical model that considers multiple worn stages and constructs a spatial complex surface reconstruction model for flats based on NURBS technology. A vehicle–track coupled dynamics model, considering the geometry of the flat, is established to investigate the effects of flat geometry on the wheel–rail impact response and contact relationship in detail. The results show that in the subcritical regime, the wear degree of the flat predominantly affects the impact force, while in the transcritical regime, both the wear degree and velocity together determine the magnitude of the wheel–rail impact force. As the wear degree increases, the moment of wheel lateral jump occurs earlier. The spatial modeling method for flats proposed in this paper offers a novel technical approach for accurately simulating the dynamic behavior of wheel–rail contact when a flat is present.

Impact of Train Formation on the Dynamic Responses and Operational Safety of High-Speed Trains under Non-Uniform Seismic Ground Motion

The study of dynamic responses and operational safety of high-speed trains under seismic excitation has increasingly relied on numerical simulation as the most effective and convenient research approach. The majority of studies only focus on single-car formation, and fewer utilize train models with actual standard formation, inevitably resulting in differences in dynamic characteristics of train models and simulation results. Furthermore, trains also have different standard formations in different countries and operating scenarios. Therefore, the influences of train formation on the dynamic responses and operational safety of trains under seismic action are investigated. Hence, a detailed train/vehicle–track coupled dynamics model was established to simulate trains under non-uniform seismic ground motion. Moreover, due to wheel–rail contact simulation being the key factor constraining simulation efficiency, based on the influence pattern of train formation, whether fewer train formations can achieve the same simulation accuracy as the 8-car standard formation is also explored in this paper considering seismic wave propagation effect. Results indicate that variation in train formation can influence the dynamic responses of a coupled system significantly from both the perspective of wheel–rail interaction and vehicle kinematic responses. Moreover, the 5-car formation model can better meet the accuracy requirement and significantly improve computational efficiency compared to 8-car formation model.

Заходи з енергозбереження в метрополітені (на прикладі біметалевих контактних рейок)

The purpose of this study is to develop methods and tools for long-term forecasting of electricity consumption based on an improved integrated method for predicting electricity demand, taking into account the peculiarities of electric use of the Kyiv Metro and its impact on the city's electricity consumption. The scientific novelty of the results obtained is the consideration of technological potential with measures for electric saving, pouring into Level II and Level III in the energy consumption model, which takes into account both the overall potential of electric saving (from structural and technological shifts) in the country as a whole, and the features at the regional level (the city of Kyiv) in the types of economic activity in the provision of transport services (Metro). During the work, material was collected on measures for electricity saving in the metro and forecasts for the development of this type of service provision (passenger transportation). To achieve sufficient energy consumption, it is important to introduce energy-efficient technologies that will reduce electricity costs without losing productivity and passenger service quality. Bimetallic contact rails are more efficient in terms of transmitting electric current and reducing energy losses. This innovation opens up new opportunities for the sustainable development of urban transport and contributes to the creation of more efficient and convenient conditions for city residents. Measures are provided to protect the structures and equipment of the section that is being designed and built, the metro line from electric corrosion. Calculation of electricity saving potentials at the regional level (Kyiv) made it possible to more accurately take into account the volume of implementation of energy saving measures, since such programs are developed at the regional level. These estimates are used to determine the technological potential of energy saving. The technological potential of electricity saving will reach the level of 600 million kWh by 2040, while maintaining the pace of economic development in Kyiv. Keywords: Metro, electric saving, electric saving potential, forecasting, energy efficiency, electricity.

Numerical Simulation Study on the Hydrothermal Characteristics and Dynamic Response of the Embankment–Bridge Transition Zone in Cold Regions

The chain reaction of bridge abutment structure caused by frost heave of the embankment–bridge transition zone filler in cold regions has a great impact on the smoothness of railway lines, which will bring great challenges to the normal operation, safety, and maintenance of rail transit in cold regions under the action of long-term dynamic load. In this paper, the hydrothermal model and dynamic analysis model of the embankment–bridge transition zone are established, and the frost heave deformation rule and dynamic response characteristics of the embankment–bridge transition zone under frost heave conditions are studied. The results show that the effect of the bridge abutment structure on vertical frost heave is mainly concentrated in the range of the bridge abutment, and the vertical frost heave near the abutment is much smaller than other parts away from the abutment. The dynamic response and wheel–rail contact force of the embankment–bridge transition zone are significantly different under non-frost heave and frost heave conditions. Frost heave may cause a higher risk of derailment. This study provides a scientific reference for the design, construction, and safe operation and maintenance of embankment–bridge transition zones in cold regions, and has certain practical engineering significance.

The Two-Parameter Bifurcation and Evolution of Hunting Motion for a Bogie System

The complex service environment of railway vehicles leads to changes in the wheel–rail adhesion coefficient, and the decrease in critical speed may lead to hunting instability. This paper aims to reveal the diversity of periodic hunting motion patterns and the internal correlation relationship with wheel–rail impact velocities after the hunting instability of a bogie system. A nonlinear, non-smooth lateral dynamic model of a bogie system with 7 degrees of freedom is constructed. The wheel–rail contact relations and the piecewise smooth flange forces are the main nonlinear, non-smooth factors in the system. Based on Poincaré mapping and the two-parameter co-simulation theory, hunting motion modes and existence regions are obtained in the parameter plane consisting of running speed v and the wheel–rail adhesion coefficient μ. Three-dimensional cloud maps of the maximum lateral wheel–rail impact velocity are obtained, and the correlation with the hunting motion pattern is analyzed. The coexistence of periodic hunting motions is further revealed based on combined bifurcation diagrams and multi-initial value phase diagrams. The results show that grazing bifurcation causes the number of wheel–rail impacts to increase at a low-speed range. Periodic hunting motion with period number n = 1 has smaller lateral wheel–rail impact velocities, whereas chaotic motion induces more severe wheel–rail impacts. Subharmonic periodic hunting motion windows within the speed range of chaotic motion, pitchfork bifurcation, and jump bifurcation are the primary forms that induce the coexistence of periodic motion.

Inverse wheel–rail contact force and crossing irregularity identification from measured sleeper accelerations – A model-based Green's function approach

A novel model-based method for railway Crossing Panel Condition Monitoring (CPCM) is presented. Based on sleeper accelerations measured during wheel crossing transitions and knowledge of the crossing panel design, it is shown that it is possible to identify the ballast stiffness properties, vertical wheel–rail contact forces and vertical relative wheel–rail displacement trajectories (crossing irregularities) in the crossing panel. The method uses a multibody dynamics simulation model with a finite element representation of the track structure for evaluation of the dynamic interaction between vehicle and crossing panel. Considering the low-frequency domain where the sleeper response is not significantly affected by the influence of the irregularity due to the designed (and current state of the) crossing and wing rail geometry, the ballast condition is identified via a calibration of the distribution of ballast stiffness in the finite element model. This enables ballast stiffness identification without a priori knowledge of the crossing geometry. From the reconstructed track displacements, the wheel–rail contact forces are identified by solving an inverse problem formulated using the Green's Kernel Function Method (GKFM) that provides a direct link between the track excitation forces and the track response. Further, the irregularity induced by the crossing and wing rail geometry is estimated by taking the difference between the wheel and rail displacements during the crossing transition computed from the identified wheel–rail contact forces. By monitoring the evolving irregularity, the degradation of the crossing rails over time can be assessed. The method is verified and validated using concurrently measured sleeper accelerations and laser scanned crossing geometries from six crossing panels in situ.

An efficient 3D finite element procedure for simulating wheel–rail cyclic contact and ratcheting

Various models for simulating rail ratcheting behaviour were developed to study rolling contact fatigue (RCF) damage in rails. However, limitations remain in terms of the accuracy of wheel–rail contact modelling and computational efficiency of the cyclic loading simulation. This study developed an efficient 3D finite element (FE) procedure to simulate ratcheting in rails subjected to numerous load cycles. The procedure simulates a wheel rolling repeatedly over a rail section with updated stress–strain states, enabling automatically executed cyclic loading simulation given a predefined number of cycles. To ensure the accuracy of the contact modelling, the effect of meshing schemes on subsurface stress distribution was examined. In addition, the FE contact model with the selected meshing scheme, which balances accuracy and computational efficiency, was verified against the widely accepted CONTACT program. Subsequently, a non-linear kinematic hardening (NLKH) steel material was used in the FE model for ratcheting simulations with up to 100 wheel-loading cycles. The rail surface and subsurface stress states were replicated under partial-slip wheel–rail rolling contact conditions with traction coefficients of 0.10, 0.20 and 0.35, respectively. The ratcheting behaviour was extensively analysed in terms of plastic deformation, contact patch evolution, and ratcheting rates. The simulated plastic deformation was found to alter the contact geometry and thus contact stresses, which in turn affect further accumulation of plastic deformation and subsequent ratcheting strains. These findings highlighted the importance of considering the interplay between the rail ratcheting behaviour of the rail and evolving contact conditions for predicting ratcheting and RCF damage in rails.