Termite Consumption Research Articles

Utilization of Bark Condensed Tannin as Natural Preservatives Against Subterranean Termite

Extractive-based preservative has been isolated from many parts of plant to protect wood from fungi or pest. This is due to the presence of bioactive chemical as a natural preservative. Present study, the condensed tannin was isolated from bark-waste of Acacia crassicarpa and Acacia mearnsii. The yield of the extracts obtained from A. crassicarpa using a 70% acetone aqueous solution (7% based on bark weight) is less than that obtained from A. mearnsii (34%). To evaluate the termiticidal activity of condensed tannin from both extracts, no-choice tests were conducted using Reticulitermes speratus. After 14 days, mass loss of the dimmer condensed tannin treated was less than 50%, significantly different with control. In addition, a monomer condensed tannin, catechin was presented the similar result. Meanwhile, the termite mortality of catechin is slightly higher than the dimmer. According to both parameter, the medium level of mass loss and termite mortality, the dimmer suggested as antifeedant in mechanism of termiticidal. The feeding activity is decreased after contact with the treated paper disc. In polymer condensed tannin, the result seems similar to dimmer condensed tannin. Condensed tannin and hydrolyzable tannin which were contained in the bark effected termite consumption because it caused inactivation of enzyme in termite digestion system. In fact, many factors effect termite activity from natural extractives such as compound type, quantity and also extract retention activity. The finding of this study should contribute to the developing of natural wood preservative from extractive-based. Especially, the study of structure-active relationship (SAR) of condensed tannin from A. crassicarpa, which can improve the utilization of bark-waste from pulp industry.

Human uses and indigenous knowledge of edible termites in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Termites are a good food source, being rich in proteins, fats, vitamins and many essential mineral nutrients, and thus provide food security for poor households. We report on a survey conducted in the Vhembe District Municipality of Limpopo Province, South Africa, to identify edible termite species and find out how they are harvested, prepared, graded, packaged and marketed. We also looked at the socio-economic factors of the harvesters, marketers and consumers. Using a structured questionnaire, 104 individuals were interviewed from 48 villages. Most of the harvesters were over the age of 60 years but termites are consumed by the whole family. The results of the survey revealed that only three termite species are consumed: soldiers of Macrotermes falciger (89.90%), M. natalensis (8.08%) and M. michaelseni (2.02%). The preferred method of preparation was frying (77.55% of the respondents). At least 80.77% of the respondents indicated that some religions have restrictions on termite consumption but no ethnic restrictions were reported. The income derived from selling termites was estimated to range from ZAR2040 to ZAR17 680 per annum between April 2015 and April 2016. The results of this study showed that edible termites contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many rural families and this indigenous knowledge should be passed on to younger generations. Research on the sustainability of termite harvesting is recommended.
 Significance: 
 
 Termites are sources of food with high economic and social importance, and are easily accessible by the poor.
 Studies have been conducted on edible termites in many African countries, yet comparatively little is known about edible termites in South Africa.
 Preservation of indigenous knowledge used during harvesting and processing needs to be prioritised.

APLIKASI UMPAN RAYAP BERBAHAN AKTIF HEXAFLUMURON PADA DOSIS BERBEDA DALAM PENGENDALIAN SERANGAN RAYAP DI PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT

Subterranean termites Coptotermes curvignathus has found as pest in oil palm plantation. The research aimed to control the termites in oil palm plantation using Hexaflumuron bait with different dosage. Location of research was oil palm plantation at Purun village in Mempawah Regency. The study was conducted by a completely randomized design method. The research treatment was dose of Hexaflumuron termite bait, consisting of 30 gram and 60 gram. Three blocks was choosing as a sample treatment consists of block H 35, block H 38 and block H 39. Hexaflumuron bait has weight 30 gram. Treatment dose of 30 gram was conducted with lay down the bait of Hexaflumuron at the mud tunnel of termites in the trunk of oil palm. Treatment dose of 60 gram was conducted with lay down two bait of Hexaflumuron at the mud tunnel of termites in the trunk of oil palm in the different place. Then inspection of bait consumption was conducted every week. Data of bait consumption and termites elimination was collected. Results of the research showed that Hexaflumuron bait was consumed by termites up to 100%. The bait has attracted the termites to consume and non-repellent to termites. After four until seven week consumption the Hexaflumuron bait, termites eliminated from the oil palm. The result of variance analysis showed that there was no significance difference between the dose of 30 gram and 60 gram on the termite consumption level. Hexaflumuron bait was effective for termites elimination in oil palm plantation within four until seven weeks and dose 30 gram was optimum for termites elimination.Keywords: Coptotermes curvignathus, hexaflumuron, oil palm, termites bait, termites control

Food Preferences and Foraging Strategies of Wood-Feeding Termites in a West African Savanna

The feeding preferences of termites in a Guinean savanna (Lamto, Cote d’Ivoire) were studied in the field to better understand the incidence of termite damages observed on adult trees, which, on interaction with fire, affect the dynamics of the tree community. Two separate multiple-choice test experiments were conducted on the six dominant tree species, aiming at determining preferences for the species and for wood conditions naturally encountered and likely to affect termite consumption behaviour. The preferences of termites were determined by their occurrence on standard-sized wood pieces and their behaviour during the first attack. Two fungus-growing termites, Ancistrotermes and Microtermes were frequently encountered on wood pieces, whereas wood feeders were absent. The two genera have different preferences, and they do not compete for the same food. Wood density and water content did not explain termite preference. Holes in the bark seem to facilitate termite entry into pieces of wood, whereas the action of fire on wood apparently makes it less attractive to termites. In the field, the decision by termites to forage on a given tree species seems to be more driven by habitat and accessibility differences than real food quality differences.

A termite symbiotic mushroom maximizing sexual activity at growing tips of vegetative hyphae

BackgroundTermitomyces mushrooms are mutualistically associated with fungus-growing termites, which are widely considered to cultivate a monogenotypic Termitomyces symbiont within a colony. Termitomyces cultures isolated directly from termite colonies are heterokaryotic, likely through mating between compatible homokaryons.ResultsAfter pairing homokaryons carrying different haplotypes at marker gene loci MIP and RCB from a Termitomyces fruiting body associated with Odontotermes formosanus, we observed nuclear fusion and division, which greatly resembled meiosis, during each hyphal cell division and conidial formation in the resulting heterokaryons. Surprisingly, nuclei in homokaryons also behaved similarly. To confirm if meiotic-like recombination occurred within mycelia, we constructed whole-genome sequencing libraries from mycelia of two homokaryons and a heterokaryon resulting from mating of the two homokaryons. Obtained reads were aligned to the reference genome of Termitomyces sp. J132 for haplotype reconstruction. After removal of the recombinant haplotypes shared between the heterokaryon and either homokaryons, we inferred that 5.04% of the haplotypes from the heterokaryon were the recombinants resulting from homologous recombination distributed genome-wide. With RNA transcripts of four meiosis-specific genes, including SPO11, DMC1, MSH4, and MLH1, detected from a mycelial sample by real-time quantitative PCR, the nuclear behavior in mycelia was reconfirmed meiotic-like.ConclusionUnlike other basidiomycetes where sex is largely restricted to basidia, Termitomyces maximizes sexuality at somatic stage, resulting in an ever-changing genotype composed of a myriad of coexisting heterogeneous nuclei in a heterokaryon. Somatic meiotic-like recombination may endow Termitomyces with agility to cope with termite consumption by maximized genetic variability.

Termite activity and decomposition are influenced by digging mammal reintroductions along an aridity gradient

Species declines can have broader impacts on ecosystems, particularly when those species act as ecosystem engineers. Ecosystem engineers modify habitats, indirectly shaping biotic communities. Environmental attributes may limit the direct influence of engineers on habitat properties, indirectly affecting other species and ecological functioning. We used three sites differing in abiotic properties, where endangered digging mammals had been reintroduced, and hypothesised that: Reintroduced mammals affect resource consumption and abandonment by termites, and local factors influence termite interactions with reintroduced mammals. We therefore performed two manipulative experiments: first testing the effects of depth on termite consumption of resources, second, testing resource abandonment by termites following simulated disturbances by determining the proportion of termites remaining at disturbed resources relative to undisturbed controls. Experiments were conducted inside reintroduction enclosures and compared against controls. Resource consumption was ∼25% lower, and resource abandonment ∼50% higher where digging mammals were reintroduced and termite responses were consistent with decreasing aridity. The near-extinction of native digging mammals from much of Australia is likely to have significantly altered termite activity and decomposition, but impacts may be context-dependent, with aridity potentially playing a key role. Our work suggests, counterintuitively, that ecosystem impacts of reintroductions may be lower in resource-poor sites.

Termite prevalence and crop lodging under conservation agriculture in sub-humid Zimbabwe

Provision of permanent soil cover using crop residues in conservation agriculture (CA) is constrained by livestock grazing and termite consumption in smallholder farming systems of sub Saharan Africa. This study evaluated the effects of surface applied maize (Zea mays L.) crop residues on termite prevalence, crop damage due to termite attack and maize yield over two seasons, 2008/9 and 2009/10. Treatments with residue application rates of 0, 2, 4 and 6 t ha−1 under CA and a conventional mouldboard ploughing (CMP) control were laid out in a randomized complete block design with four replicates on three farm sites in Kadoma, Zimbabwe. Maize residues increased (P < 0.05) termite numbers compared to CMP treatment. Crop lodging at harvest increased (P < 0.05) from 30 to 34% in CMP to 42–48% in CA systems. However, no significant difference was found in crop lodging with increasing residue rates within CA treatments. Significantly higher crop yields were observed under CA (P < 0.05) ranging from 2900 - 3348 kg ha−1 in 2008/9 season compared to CMP with 2117 kg ha−1. Nevertheless, increasing residue cover in CA did not necessarily increase maize crop yield. Thus, increasing crop residue application rates under CA increased termite prevalence while crop lodging was influenced more by soil tillage system than by crop residue application rates.

Rural households’ livelihoods diversification through termite utilization in depressed region of Zimbabwe

This study sought to examine the utility of termites to rural households in depressed regions of Bikita, Zimbabwe. Colonialism and its spread of European culture had viewed entomophagy with contempt resulting in reduced utilization and consumption of termites in most colonies. In our quest to understand how people in depressed regions utilized termites, both quantitative and qualitative methodologies were employed. Questionnaires and in-depth interviews were used to gather data during field work. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used in recruiting respondents. Excel and content analysis were used in data presentation and analysis. Results revealed that dampwood and drywood termites are climatic indicators for the rural communal farmers, a low-cost technology in weather forecasting. Subterrain and mold builders provide manure, relish, and are medicinal in nature. They are traded for income generation, and as for the poor, harvesting, processing, storage, and marketing is cost effective. Thou...

The effects of tillage, mulching and termite control strategies on termite activity and maize yield under conservation agriculture in Mozambique

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system premised on minimum soil disturbance, provision of permanent soil cover and the use of crop rotation/associations. However, in central Mozambique, provision of permanent soil cover is threatened by termites which feed on the residues. This study investigated the effectiveness of tillage and mulch management in CA as well as termite control strategies including local natural indigenous techniques on termite activity, crop lodging and maize (Zea mays L.) yields. The study was carried out at a research site in Chimoio, Central Mozambique over two seasons, 2011/12 and 2012/13. The application of crop residues in CA significantly increased (p < 0.05) termite activity measured through surface area covered by termite galleries (termite activity) from 6.4 to 11.5% and termite numbers per litter bag from 78 to 138 in fields without and with residues, respectively. Residue application also reduced maize crop lodging due to termite attack as the termites preferentially fed on the maize residues. However, tillage effects alone on termite activity were not apparent. Maize yield increased significantly on switching from conventional tillage to minimum soil disturbance (no till) but not with residue application. With respect to the termite control methods tested, only the commercial insecticide fipronil (phenylpyrazole) proved to be effective in reducing termite consumption of residues and also significantly reduced lodging of maize plants at harvest. At least 1.5 t ha−1 of the residues remained in the system where fipronil was applied in comparison to 0.41–0.48 t ha−1 in the other treatments by November 2013. Maize grain yields were negatively correlated (p < 0.05) to crop lodging due to termite damage while crop lodging in turn declined significantly with application of surface residues. Termite activity was however not significantly correlated to crop lodging, suggesting that termite activity could increase without necessarily increasing crop lodging. Thus in cases where termite damage increases to pest proportions, commercial control insecticides such as fipronil, offer a possible solution to control termites but its economic and long term environmental effects need to be evaluated.

Detection of mitochondrial COII DNA sequences in ant guts as a method for assessing termite predation by ants.

Termites and ants contribute more to animal biomass in tropical rain forests than any other single group and perform vital ecosystem functions. Although ants prey on termites, at the community level the linkage between these groups is poorly understood. Thus, assessing the distribution and specificity of ant termitophagy is of considerable interest. We describe an approach for quantifying ant-termite food webs by sequencing termite DNA (cytochrome c oxidase subunit II, COII) from ant guts and apply this to a soil-dwelling ant community from tropical rain forest in Gabon. We extracted DNA from 215 ants from 15 species. Of these, 17.2 % of individuals had termite DNA in their guts, with BLAST analysis confirming the identity of 34.1 % of these termites to family level or better. Although ant species varied in detection of termite DNA, ranging from 63 % (5/7; Camponotus sp. 1) to 0 % (0/7; Ponera sp. 1), there was no evidence (with small sample sizes) for heterogeneity in termite consumption across ant taxa, and no evidence for species-specific ant-termite predation. In all three ant species with identifiable termite DNA in multiple individuals, multiple termite species were represented. Furthermore, the two termite species that were detected on multiple occasions in ant guts were in both cases found in multiple ant species, suggesting that ant-termite food webs are not strongly compartmentalised. However, two ant species were found to consume only Anoplotermes-group termites, indicating possible predatory specialisation at a higher taxonomic level. Using a laboratory feeding test, we were able to detect termite COII sequences in ant guts up to 2 h after feeding, indicating that our method only detects recent feeding events. Our data provide tentative support for the hypothesis that unspecialised termite predation by ants is widespread and highlight the use of molecular approaches for future studies of ant-termite food webs.

Detection of termites and other insects consumed by African great apes using molecular fecal analysis.

The consumption of insects by apes has previously been reported based on direct observations and/or trail signs in feces. However, DNA-based diet analyses may have the potential to reveal trophic links for these wild species. Herein, we analyzed the insect-diet diversity of 9 feces obtained from three species of African great apes, gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and bonobo (Pan paniscus), using two mitochondrial amplifications for arthropods. A total of 1056 clones were sequenced for Cyt-b and COI gene libraries, which contained 50 and 56 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), respectively. BLAST research revealed that the OTUs belonged to 32 families from 5 orders (Diptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Orthoptera). While ants were not detected by this method, the consumption of flies, beetles, moths, mosquitoes and termites was evident in these samples. Our findings indicate that molecular techniques can be used to analyze insect food items in wild animals.

Myositis due to Consumption of Swarmer Termites: A Case Report

The practice of insect consumption, Entomophagy, is widely encountered in India due to significant nutritional and economic benefits to rural community. Local allergic reactions and systemic responses like bronchospasm, angioedema, anaphylaxis, and rarely seizures have been reported. We report the first case of generalised Skeletal and ocular muscles involvement, with no involvement of respiratory and gut muscles due to termite consumption with a favourable outcome.

Evaluation of Effect of Consumption of Termites (Macrotermes Nigeriensis) on Biochemical and Haematological Profile of Male Albino Wister Rats

Regardless of their well- known role as pests, termites (Macrotermes) are consumed as part of a traditional diet in Igbo region of Nigeria West Africa (Kinyuru 2009). In response to the administration of salt seasoned fried termites (Macrotermes nigeriensis) were evaluated. Sixty male albino rats of weight (180-200g) were used in the study. They were randomly divided into 3 groups viz.: A, B, and C. Group A animals served as the control group, group B were fed with high dose of the fried termites while group C were fed with low dose. All treatments were for 28 days acute study. Biochemical and haematological diagnosis were performed with blood samples collected from the animals with cardiac puncture. Results showed that M. subhylanus increased Haemoglobin concentration (14.8 ± 2.05g, 100ml), packed cell volume ((44.0 ± 4.21%) platelet count 220 ± 65 x 10 9 /L), and white WBC total count (5,200 ± 160/mm 3 ), in test animals compared with their corresponding controls. The biochemical analysis also showed increased levels in protein (51 ± 1.0%), iron (13.06 ± 0.64mg/100ml and lipid content (66.50 ± 0.22%) in test animals compared with their corresponding controls. It could be deduced from this study that the salt seasoned fried meals of M. subhylanus (termites) encourages selective haemopoiesis and is well tolerated.

Impacts of an extreme cyclone event on landscape-scale savanna fire, productivity and greenhouse gas emissions

North Australian tropical savanna accounts for 12% of the world’s total savanna land cover. Accordingly, understanding processes that govern carbon, water and energy exchange within this biome is critical to global carbon and water budgeting. Climate and disturbances drive ecosystem carbon dynamics. Savanna ecosystems of the coastal and sub-coastal of north Australia experience a unique combination of climatic extremes and are in a state of near constant disturbance from fire events (1 in 3 years), storms resulting in windthrow (1 in 5–10 years) and mega-cyclones (1 in 500–1000 years). Critically, these disturbances occur over large areas creating a spatial and temporal mosaic of carbon sources and sinks. We quantify the impact on gross primary productivity (GPP) and fire occurrence from a tropical mega-cyclone, tropical Cyclone Monica (TC Monica), which affected 10 400 km2 of savanna across north Australia, resulting in the mortality and severe structural damage to ∼140 million trees. We estimate a net carbon equivalent emission of 43 Tg of CO2-e using the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) GPP (MOD17A2) to quantify spatial and temporal patterns pre- and post-TC Monica. GPP was suppressed for four years after the event, equivalent to a loss of GPP of 0.5 Tg C over this period. On-ground fuel loads were estimated to potentially release 51.2 Mt CO2-e, equivalent to ∼10% of Australia’s accountable greenhouse gas emissions. We present a simple carbon balance to examine the relative importance of frequency versus impact for a number of key disturbance processes such as fire, termite consumption and intense but infrequent mega-cyclones. Our estimates suggested that fire and termite consumption had a larger impact on Net Biome Productivity than infrequent mega-cyclones. We demonstrate the importance of understanding how climate variability and disturbance impacts savanna dynamics in the context of the increasing interest in using savanna landscapes for enhanced carbon sinks in emission offset schemes.

Influence of diet on prehension mode in cordylid lizards: a morphological and kinematic analysis

AbstractLizards exhibit a variety of mechanisms to capture prey, including lingual prehension, jaw prehension and lingual pinning. Despite being the topic of numerous studies, the link between prehension mode and diet remains poorly understood, especially in clades where multiple prehension modes are present. We addressed this issue by comparing the feeding behaviour and tongue morphology of a termite‐eating specialist Ouroborus cataphractus with that of a closely related dietary generalist Karusasaurus polyzonus. We used high‐speed videography to test the effect of prey species (termite vs. small cricket) and prey size (small vs. large cricket) on prehension mode. In addition, we included several other cordylid lizards representing the major clades in the family into our analysis to examine whether the prehension modes present in O. cataphractus characterize all cordylid species or whether they represent isolated occurrences. Finally, we investigated the morphology of the tongue in Cordylidae, with emphasis on O. cataphractus and K. polyzonus, using light and scanning electron microscopy techniques. Our data showed that the consumption of termites in O. cataphractus has resulted in the evolution of a novel lingual prehension mode, during which the ventral surface of the tongue is used to apprehend prey. This is in contrast to other lizards, which use the dorsal surface of the tongue to contact prey. Moreover, we demonstrated that this novel lingual prehension mode is accompanied by distinct morphological elaborations of the tongue surface. None of the other cordylid lizards tested in our study used lingual prehension during prey capture, except K. polyzonus, which used the tongue in a very small percentage of feeding trials. Overall, this study suggests that dietary specialization might underlie the evolution of novel prehension mechanisms in lizards.

Termite Behavior: Measuring the Postanoxic Consumption Rates of Landscape Mulches by Eastern Subterranean Termites

Populations of the Eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes, are widespread throughout most of the eastern United States. Subterranean termites have the ability to survive flooding conditions by lowering their metabolism. This lesson investigates the connection between the ability of termites to lower their metabolism to survive floods and their feeding behavior. Using an incubator, Petri dishes, and different types of mulch, termite consumption can be measured and compared. These results can be analyzed with a simple statistical test to look for significance.

Interactions between large herbivores and litter removal by termites across a rainfall gradient in a South African savanna

Abstract:Litter-feeding termites influence key aspects of the structure and functioning of semi-arid ecosystems around the world by altering nutrient and material fluxes, affecting primary production, foodweb dynamics and modifying vegetation composition. Understanding these complex effects depends on quantifying spatial heterogeneity in termite foraging activities, yet such information is scarce for semi-arid savannas. Here, the amount of litter that was removed from 800 litterbags in eight plots (100 litterbags per plot) was measured in Hluhluwe–iMfolozi Park (HiP) South Africa. These data were used to quantify variation in litter removal at two spatial scales: the local scale (within 450-m2 plots) and the landscape scale (among sites separated by 8–25 km). Subsequently, we attempted to understand the possible determinants of termites’ foraging patterns by testing various ecological correlates, such as plant biomass and bare ground at small scales and rainfall and fences that excluded large mammalian herbivores at larger scales. No strong predictors for heterogeneity in termite foraging intensity were found at the local scale. At the landscape scale termite consumption depended on an interaction between rainfall and the presence of large mammalian herbivores: litter removal by termites was greater in the presence of large herbivores at the drier sites but lower in the presence of large herbivores at the wetter sites. The effect of herbivores on termite foraging intensity may indicate a switch between termites and large herbivore facilitation and competition across a productivity gradient. In general, litter removal decreased with increasing mean annual rainfall, which is in contrast to current understanding of termite consumption across rainfall and productivity gradients. These results generate novel insights into termite ecology and interactions among consumers of vastly different body sizes across spatial scales.

The impact of the locust control insecticide fipronil on termites and ants in two contrasting habitats in northern Australia

Termites and ants are key ecosystem engineers and nutrient re-cyclers. Extensive spraying of insecticides presents a hazard to these insects. Using a control-treatment paired design comprising 3 replicate pairs of plots per soil type, we quantified the impact of fipronil on termite consumption of cardboard and wood baits, termite repair of deliberately damaged mounds as well as ant community composition and abundance in two different habitats (black vertisol and red kandosol soil) when applied aerially at a dose rate recommended for locust control in Australia. The study was conducted from 2006 to 2008. The diversity of termites and ants was higher and side-effects were more pronounced on kandosol than on vertisol soil. Overall termite consumption of cardboard baits was significantly greater in unsprayed than in sprayed plots while losses were significantly greater in only one (vertisol) or two (kandosol) sprayed plots, respectively, compared to paired unsprayed plots. In the first year, termite consumption of wood baits was generally significantly greater on unsprayed than on sprayed kandosol while only marginally significant on unsprayed vertisol. Again, losses were significantly greater in one (vertisol) and two (kandosol) sprayed plots, respectively, compared to paired unsprayed plots. Overall termite consumption of wood baits was similar among plots in the second year post-spray although consumption remained significantly depressed in one pair of sprayed plots in each habitat. The capacity of the mound-building termite, Drepanotermes rubriceps (Froggatt) unique to kandosol, to repair damaged mounds was significantly reduced by fipronil. Furthermore, colonies of Iridomyrmex greensladei Shattuck, an ant species associated with mounds of D. rubriceps, were not re-located five months post-spray. Ant communities were also adversely affected. On vertisol, species richness and relative abundance were similar among treatments, but significantly fewer species were caught in one individual sprayed plot. In contrast on kandosol, species richness and relative abundance were significantly reduced by fipronil. A drop in species richness was observed in all and a drop in relative abundance in two sprayed plots. On vertisol, abundances of two species were significantly lower in sprayed than in paired unsprayed plots. Likewise on kandosol, abundances of five species were significantly reduced in sprayed plots, and one species was not caught at all. The weight of evidence of our findings indicate that fipronil, even at a low rate, will have substantial adverse impacts on the diversity and activity of termites and ants, especially if applied within one to two years of earlier applications.

Temporal Variation in Insect-eating by Chimpanzees and Gorillas in Southeast Cameroon: Extension of Niche Differentiation

I studied insect-foraging strategies of great apes and aimed to define niche differentiation in their insect diet. I investigated seasonality in fruit-, foliage-, insect-, and meat-eating by great apes in southeast Cameroon via indirect methods and measured activity and nest densities of insect prey. I used a multinomial logistic regression to analyze the data. Gorilla and chimpanzee insect-, ant-, and termite-eating does not correlate with rainfall. Ant- and nonwinged termite-eating by chimpanzees increased in periods of succulent fruit scarcity and provided protein and energy, which might have compensated for the protein-low foliage eaten then. The apes ate winged termites when succulent fruit was abundant. Ant and winged termite consumption by gorillas correlates positively with that of chimpanzees. Ant-eating by gorillas increased when fruit was scarce, but was also associated with temporal ant activity and nest density. Both ape species also encountered more ant nests and trails in that period, as they predominantly foraged for herbs in vegetation types with high ant availability. In contrast, fruit-eating correlates positively with nonwinged termite-eating by gorillas, but again temporal prey availability is also associated. Termites might have provided 1) supplemental iron when tannin-rich fruits were eaten or 2) antidiarrheal properties when gorillas ate too much laxative fruit. Termite-eating by both ape species is not associated with spatial termite availability. In conclusion, there is niche differentiation in their insect diet. Based on the trade-off between foraging effort and nutritional gain, chimpanzees use a high-energy and gorillas a low-energy strategy when feeding on termites, but both use a low-energy strategy when feeding on ants. However, more information on the consumption of ant larvae is necessary to define niche differentiation in their ant diet.

Interactions of &lt;I&gt;Metarhizium anisoplae&lt;/I&gt; and Tree-based Mulches in Repellence and Mycoses Against &lt;I&gt;Coptotermes formosanus&lt;/I&gt; (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

The use of mulch in urban landscapes has increased in the United States for the past decade. Tree-based organic mulches can supply Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki with food, moisture, and shelter. The current research contributes to mulch management technology in termite control. A choice test arena was designed to determine the repellence and mortality caused by commercial mulches treated with different concentrations of the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) against C. formosanus. Each of six tree-based mulches (pine bark, pine straw, bald cypress, eucalyptus, water oak, and melaleuca) was coated with six conidial concentrations ranging from 1 x 10(3) to 1 x 10(8) conidia/ml. The foragers of C. formosanus were repelled significantly by the fungal-treated mulch substrates; the proportion of termites on fungal-treated mulch was usually <20% during the 28-d test. By day 28, >99% of the termites were killed in test arenas containing a chamber with mulch treated with 10(7) or 10(8) conidia/ml. M. anisopliae significantly reduced mulch consumption by 34-71%. Mulch consumption by the termites was negatively correlated with fungal concentration, and the type of mulch also affected consumption. The differences in termite foraging activities, mortality, and food consumption among mulches were usually confounded by differences in fungal concentrations of M. anisopliae. The results indicate that repellence and virulence of M. anisopliae conidia should significantly reduce the suitability of these six mulches as a habitat for C. formosanus.