Construction Techniques Research Articles

Edifices Created with Precast and Prefabricated Components

Typically, the precast and prestressed concrete courses encompass various topics vital for understanding and applying the principles of prestressed concrete design and construction. This paper is designed to educate students on precast and prestressed concrete's theory and practical aspects, emphasizing the importance of understanding the mechanics, design principles, and construction techniques involved. By the end of this paper, one will have a solid foundation in working with these materials and be prepared to apply their knowledge in real-world scenarios. Comprehending the basic principles of prestressing, encompassing a range of systems and techniques employed within the field, is crucial for professionals in the industry. By delving into the core concepts of prestressing, individuals can gain a deeper insight into how this method enhances the structural integrity of various construction projects. Understanding the different systems and strategies utilized in prestressing allows engineers and architects to make informed decisions when designing and implementing their projects.

Genetic Programming for Automatically Evolving Multiple Features to Classification

Abstract Performing classification on high-dimensional data poses a significant challenge due to the huge search space. Moreover, complex feature interactions introduce an additional obstacle. The problems can be addressed by using feature selection to select relevant features or feature construction to construct a small set of high-level features. However, performing feature selection or feature construction only might make the feature set suboptimal. To remedy this problem, this study investigates the use of genetic programming for simultaneous feature selection and feature construction in addressing different classification tasks. The proposed approach is tested on 16 datasets and compared with seven methods including both feature selection and feature constructions techniques. The results show that the obtained feature sets with the constructed and/or selected features can significantly increase the classification accuracy and reduce the dimensionality of the datasets. Further analysis reveals the complementarity of the obtained features leading to the promising classification performance of the proposed method.

Exposing a dual-readout fibre calorimeter to electron beams, in preparation for HiDRa: High-resolution calorimeter for [formula omitted] colliders

Among the proposed accelerators for the post-LHC era are the Future Circular Collider (FCC) and the Circular Electron–Positron Collider (CEPC). Both projects would take advantage of the clean environment and low radiation damage of electron–positron collisions, providing the highest precision studies of electroweak and Higgs physics. The relatively high branching fraction of W, Z and Higgs bosons into hadronic jets makes the precise measurements of these objects an essential aspect on detector development for experiments at future collider facilities. One of the most promising calorimetry techniques for improved hadron energy reconstruction is the dual-readout method, which exploits signals from two different physics processes to correct for the fem of hadron showers, therefore boosting the standalone calorimeter performance. The usage of compact photosensors (e.g. Silicon PhotoMultipliers) for the readout enables a very fine segmentation, opening to particle-flow and advanced neural networks software reconstruction of events. In this contribution, the results of testing a small-scale dual-readout calorimeter prototype, characterised by a mixed PMT and SiPM readout solution, with an electron beam at the CERN SPS facility in the energy range [10, 120] GeV are presented. It follows the description of a larger prototype of the same type, currently under construction in the context of the INFN HiDRa project, that will be large enough to fully contain hadron showers. The design, construction technique and expected performance, as estimated through a Geant4 simulation parameterised on the previous prototype, are presented.

Entropic Regression Dynamic Mode Decomposition (ERDMD) Discovers Informative Sparse and Nonuniformly Time Delayed Models

In this work, we present a method that determines optimal multistep Dynamic Mode Decomposition (DMD) models via Entropic Regression (ER), which is a nonlinear information flow detection algorithm. Motivated by the Higher-Order DMD (HODMD) method of [ Le Clainche & Vega , 2017 ], and the ER technique for network detection and model construction found in [ Sun et al. , 2015 ; AlMomani et al. , 2020 ], we develop a method that we call ERDMD, which produces high fidelity time-delay DMD models that allow for nonuniformity in the delays. This optimal choice of delays is discovered by maximizing informativity as measured through ER. These models are shown to be highly efficient and robust. We test our method over several data sets generated by chaotic attractors and show that we are able to build excellent reconstructions using relatively minimal models. We likewise are able to better identify multiscale features via our models which enhances the utility of DMD.

Finding the minimum [formula omitted]-weighted dominating sets using heuristic algorithms

In this work, we propose, analyze, and solve a generalization of the k-dominating set problem in a graph, when we consider a weighted graph. Given a graph with weights in its edges, a set of vertices is a k-weighted dominating set if for every vertex outside the set, the sum of the weights from it to its adjacent vertices in the set is bigger than or equal to k. The k-weighted domination number is the minimum cardinality among all k-weighted dominating sets. Since the problem of finding the k-weighted domination number is NP-hard, we have proposed several problem-adapted construction and reconstruction techniques and embedded them in an Iterated Greedy algorithm. The resulting sixteen variants of the Iterated Greedy algorithm have been compared with an exact algorithm. Computational results show that the proposal is able to find optimal or near-optimal solutions within a short computational time. To the best of our knowledge, the k-weighted dominating set problem has never been studied before in the literature and, therefore, there is no other state-of-the-art algorithm to solve it. We have also included a comparison with a particular case of our problem, the minimum dominating set problem and, on average, we achieve same quality results within around 50% of computation time.

The Idea of ‘Loosening the Bond Between Ground and Structure’ in Antiquity and Archaeological Evidence on Antiseismic Foundations

Antiseismic structures in antiquity are often overlooked or disputed by those working in the field, even though they are not mentioned in written sources. At the very least, it should be recognized that some of the traditional structures and building techniques of ancient cultures in Anatolia and surrounding regions were antiseismic before today’s concrete structures. In fact, these techniques were sometimes applied over a wide geographical area and sometimes in a narrower region, as if under the control of a central government, administration or idea, and continue to be used for a long time. Archaeological studies reveal that some construction methods were widely used to support structures affected by dynamic loads. Such methods were applied and developed by engineers, architects and artisans who were fully aware of the effects of earthquakes on structures. Therefore, antiseismic structures must have emerged due to awareness of earthquake hazards. Wood in foundations and walls in Anatolia in the Bronze Ages, sand in Mesopotamia and Egypt, sand, ash, coal and lime in Greek architecture, and opus caementicum in Rome were applied in and under the foundation in more durable or long-lasting building construction techniques. Undoubtedly, wood and wood foundations have been known and used since the Bronze Age. Unfortunately, with the emergence of new materials and technologies, the traditional architectural understanding of Anatolia was almost wholly removed from construction practice. As in modern constructions, in archaeological studies, attention is paid to the structures’ above- ground units, while the underground foundation sections are overlooked. Data about the use of wood in the groundwork is sometimes discovered by chance. This article demonstrates that the idea of loosening the bond between structure and ground was known in ancient times. Although the technical solutions used in the past match the principles of base insulation, it is arguable whether they are genuinely antiseismic as they are today.

Multi-experimental seismic analysis of low-rise thin reinforced concrete wall building with unconnected elastomeric isolators using real-time hybrid simulations

In response to the pressing need for housing and streamlining construction processes, the building industry has embraced innovative construction techniques. One such method, known as the Industrialized Housing Construction (IHC) system, departs from traditional framing systems by utilizing thin-reinforced concrete walls (TRCW). These TRCWs, characterized by high flowability and rapid strength gain, enable quick and efficient monolithic construction of walls and slabs. However, challenges have arisen regarding the structural behavior of these elements, potentially compromising their seismic performance. Given the significant seismic risk, there is a compelling need to develop resilient buildings by using this cost-efficient structural system. This study proposes the use of passive control systems such as base isolation to address this problem. While base isolation has proven effective in other countries, its feasibility in structures using TRCW and its performance during actual seismic events warrants further investigation. This paper presents an innovative approach using Multi-Axial Real-Time Hybrid Simulation (M-RTHS), which combines numerical and experimental components to gain deeper insights into the seismic response of low-rise TRCW buildings with base isolation using unconnected fiber-reinforced elastomeric isolators (U-FREIs). The methodology is detailed and includes the division of the structure into numerical and experimental segments and the use of transfer systems to replicate real seismic excitations, including those from El Centro (USA, 1940), Pizarro (Colombia, 2004), Chihuahua (Mexico, 2013), Loma Prieta (USA, 1989), and Kobe (Japan, 1995), with a maximum amplitude of 7.36 [Formula: see text] (0.75 g). The results highlight a remarkable reduction in upper structure floor drifts of over 57.47%, the characterization of the behavior and energy dissipation of each experimental specimen, and the optimal evaluation of M-RTHS. This research paves the way for improving the seismic resistance of buildings in regions prone to seismic activity, especially those using innovative construction methods such as TRCW.

Bidirectional Transmission Mapping of Architectural Styles of Tibetan Buddhist Temples in China from the 7th to the 18th Century

Architecture is the stone book of history, and the evolution of architectural styles showcases a non-verbal history constructed through images. As an important part of China’s historical and cultural heritage, the architectural forms and styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples were initially modeled on Tang dynasty temple architecture and gradually evolved into the most significant architectural types in regions such as Tibet and Qinghai in China. Religious architecture has also played a significant role in shaping regional cultural landscapes. Existing research on Tibetan Buddhist temples is primarily focused on qualitative studies of individual temple buildings. This research takes the spatiotemporal evolution of architectural styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples as an entry point and, for the first time, employs ArcGIS technology to visualize the spatial and geographical distribution of Tibetan Buddhist temples from the 7th to the 18th century, establishing a comprehensive academic vision that encompasses both historical stratification and cross-regional spatial correlations. By analyzing the cultural symbolic features embodied in the construction styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples and the visual characteristics reflected in their decorative arts, we propose two spatiotemporal dimensions for the formation and transmission of Tibetan Buddhist temple architectural styles: “Westward Transmission” and “Eastward Diffusion”. Firstly, from the 7th to the 9th centuries, the architectural style and construction techniques of Tang dynasty Buddhist temples were transmitted westward along the Tang–Tibet ancient road, integrating with local Tibetan elements to form the Tubo architectural style, which was further refined into the “Sino–Tibetan Combined Style” with strong visual characteristics around the 13th century. Subsequently, along with the spread of Tibetan Buddhism, this temple architectural style underwent an eastward diffusion from the 13th to the 18th century, reaching regions, such as Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, and Beijing, presenting a spatial gradient from west to east in the geographical dimension. On this basis, in this research, we construct a historical evolution mapping of Tibetan Buddhist temple architectural styles based on bidirectional transmission, attempting to elucidate that the intrinsic driving forces are religious and the cultural identity that guided the bidirectional transmission mechanism of these architectural styles under the historical context of the formation and dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism from the 7th to the 18th century.

Domestic and Productive Earthen Architecture Conserved In Situ in Archaeological Sites of the Iberian Peninsula

For past societies on the Iberian Peninsula, one of the most prolific architectures was earthen construction, with a wealth of typologies and solutions derived from the legacy of local construction and materials. However, its study within the field of archaeology has been limited. The challenges posed by conservation, archaeological identification and social recognition have traditionally limited the dissemination of this type of architecture. Its low profile is perceived as fragile once the original protections collapse. The ethnological information preserved and linked to past ways of life and societies is crucial to the interpretation of the cultural development handed down over generations by different communities and now transmitted to the general public through archaeological sites. This research aims to provide an overview of the main earthen vestiges from domestic, productive and funerary architecture dating from the prehistoric, protohistoric, Roman and medieval periods. For this, a bibliographical review and data collection through fieldwork were conducted for numerous case studies. These included the classification of materials, compositions and construction techniques, creating an integrated comprehensive database with information on geography, measurements and the general state of conservation.

The wettability of complete denture base materials constructed by conventional versus digital techniques: an in-vitro study

BackgroundDecreased salivary flow can make the patients uncomfortable with their complete dentures and affects the retention of the dentures. Milling and 3D printing have become an alternative to conventional denture construction techniques. The goal of this study was to evaluate the effect of conventional and digital techniques of the complete denture construction on the denture surface wettability with distilled water and saliva substitute before and after thermocycling.MethodsA total of 30 specimens were utilized in the present study. Specimens were divided according to the construction techniques into 3 groups (n = 10 each). Group I: Heat-polymerized polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) group, group II: Milled group, and group III: 3-dimensional (3D)-printed group. All the specimens were subjected to 2000 cycles of thermal aging in a thermocycler. The wettability of all specimens to water and saliva substitute was measured via a contact angle goniometer (Olympus TGHM, Rame-hart Inc, USA) before and after thermocycling. Descriptive statistical analysis, plots, and the Shapiro-Wilk test were used to verify normality for each variable. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the 3 study groups, while paired samples t-test was used to compare the differences within each group (P < .05).ResultsThe smallest contact angle of drop of water to the denture base specimens before and after thermocycling were recorded in the milled group (53.0 ± 4.77 and 50.27 ± 2.30, respectively), followed by the heat polymerized PMMA group (85.65 ± 4.71 and 65.06 ± 2.27, respectively), and the 3D-printed group (91.34 ± 6.74 and 90.86 ± 8.57, respectively). While the smallest contact angle of drop of saliva substitute to denture base specimens was recorded in the milled group (56.82 ± 2.29 and 34.85 ± 7.51, respectively), followed by the 3D-printed group (72.87 ± 4.83 and 58.14 ± 9.58, respectively) and the heat polymerized PMMA group (83.62 ± 4.12 and 67.82 ± 4.93, respectively). There was statistically significant difference between the groups (P < .05). A significant decline in the average contact angle of drop of saliva has been reported in all groups after thermocycling. The contact angle values differed significantly between saliva substitute and distilled water in both 3D-printed and milled groups after thermocycling (P < .001).ConclusionsThe milled denture base material presented the best wettability to water and saliva substitute than the 3D-printed and the heat-polymerized PMMA materials. Saliva substitutes improve the wetting ability of denture base materials manufactured by CAD/CAM compared with water.

Digital improvements in the design and construction process of classical Chinese garden rockeries: a study based on material digitization

Rockeries have a complex and significant role in classical Chinese garden designs. They present distinct artistic characteristics and spatial hierarchies and are crucial to garden heritage conservation. Craftsmanship in rockery construction is a significant part of China’s intangible cultural heritage. Rockeries are primarily composed of naturally occurring rocks chosen for their uniqueness and complex shapes and textures. These rocks present challenges as nonstandard elements within the traditional Chinese garden context, as it is not easy to depict them using conventional blueprints and models. This complicates the design, adjustment, display, and construction of rockeries, which lacks tangible bases for reference. Consequently, the preservation and restoration of garden rockeries is difficult, and the perpetuation and dissemination of rockery construction skills face numerous challenges. This study introduces a method that combines laser scanning and photographic measurements to digitize precisely nonstandard elements of rockery stones. This approach presents an innovative design and construction workflow for rockeries by refining design processes, showcasing real effects, and resolving assembly issues. The results demonstrate that the combination of three-dimensional laser scanning and close-range photogrammetry can accurately replicate the complex forms and textures of these nonstandard elements. The stone coding and digital management system devised based on the logic of construction effectively satisfies the design and building requirements of rockeries. Correspondingly, the proposed digital construction workflow enhances the accuracy of rockery design, presentation, and evaluation, thereby contributing to the protection and restoration of rockery heritage sites and the transmission of rockery construction techniques.

Automating historical centering-minimizing masonry vaulting strategies: Applications to cooperative robotic construction

This paper investigates the feasibility of adapting ancient historical construction techniques to cooperative robotic assembly methods to minimize centering requirements in masonry vaults. First, an overview of seven historical techniques is presented. Next, a classification framework is introduced to evaluate the automation potential of these methods, identifying the rib network as the most promising candidate. This is followed by two computational case studies on the cooperative robotic construction of planar masonry arches and multi-arch rib networks. These studies evaluated the impact of robotic reachability and support payload on the feasibility of centering-free construction. A conclusion based only on these simulation results is that high-payload fixed robots, in comparison to medium-payload mobile setups, allow for the construction of larger and more complex rib structures. This research is of relevance to architects and engineers interested in using a cooperative robotic fabrication framework to reduce centering in masonry vault construction.

Learning the Graph Structure of Regular Vine-Copulas from Dependence Lists

Regular vine copulas (R-vines) provide a comprehensive framework for modeling high-dimensional dependencies using a hierarchy of trees and conditional pair-copulas. While the graphical structure of R-vines is traditionally derived from data, this work introduces a novel approach by utilizing a (conditional) pairwise dependence list. Our primary goal is to construct R-vine graphs that include the maximum possible number of dependence relationships specified in such lists. To tackle this optimization challenge, characterized by exponential growth in the search space and the structural constraints of R-vines, we propose two distinct methodologies: A 0-1 linear programming formulation and a Genetic Algorithm (GA). Additionally, the Randomized Constructive Technique (RCT) is employed to generate the initial population of the GA, serving as a baseline for our comparison. Experimental results reveal the superior performance of the GA over the RCT in terms of success rate, incorporating more relationships than RCT into the constructed R-vine graphs and achieving near-optimal or optimal graph structures.

Literature Review on Collaborative Project Delivery for Sustainable Construction: Bibliometric Analysis

This paper aims to conduct a bibliometric analysis and traditional literature review concerning collaborative project delivery (CPD) methods, with an emphasis on design-build (DB), construction management at risk (CMAR), and integrated project delivery (IPD) Methods. This article seeks to identify the most influential publications, reveal the advantages and disadvantages of CPD, and determine the most suitable CPD methods for sustainable construction. This research involves the application of bibliometric instruments in R, which is a powerful statistical computing language that can be used to perform complex data analyses and visualizations on bibliographic data to scrutinize academic journals retrieved from the Scopus database. Google Scholar is also utilized for an in-depth analysis as part of this study. Relevant articles are identified and screened for review. Our analysis is grounded on an extensive dataset of 927 journal articles collected from the year 2000 up to September 2023, providing a robust foundation for a comprehensive examination. Citation analysis identified highly cited publications that have significantly influenced the discourse on CPD. The analysis further established the advantages and disadvantages of CPD methods to suggest the most suitable CPD technique for sustainable construction. The results of this analysis offer insights into future directions and opportunities for further research through a comprehensive overview of the existing discourse on the subject. The paper classifies CPD through collaborative contracting, particularly through early contractor involvement (ECI), groups the design-build and construction manager at risk methods under CPD, and aligns their advantages with the critical success factors for sustainable construction in order to select the most suitable CPD technique. This research can serve as a guide for industry professionals, researchers, and policymakers, providing a structured path for collaborative endeavors and facilitating coordinated efforts toward collaborative project delivery methods and sustainable construction.

To Study the Construction Techniques for Slum Rehabilitation In Metro Cites

With increasing urbanization, the need for adequate affordable shelter also increases. Housing shortage is one of the major challenges faced in developing countries like India. It is imperative to provide housing that caters to all income groups with special focus on the low and middle income groups. In order to provide low cost housing, it is essential to adopt innovative sustainable technologies which are affordable, fast track, cost effective, durable as well as environment friendly. This seminar discusses emerging innovative technologies that can be adopted in the country to lower housing construction cost and help in provision of mass affordable housing. Some of the technologies discussed are Tunnel form, Sismo building technology, Light Gauge Steel Framed Structural technology, Precast Sandwich Panel technology etc. These technologies are reviewed on various parameters like local availability, affordability, energy efficiency, structural stability, quality, speed, cost effectiveness, eco friendliness and suitability for high rise construction. The advantages and limitations of the technologies are also mentioned. The seminar highlights the potential barriers for adoption of these technologies in the Indian urban scenario and methods which can be employed to overcome those barriers in order to provide affordable housing for the low and middle income groups. Fast track construction is very much essential for the mass housing projects like slum rehabilitation . For this rapid wall technique can be best option for construction

Exploring Traditional Nepalese Building Techniques and Timber’s Role Structural Integrity

This paper aims to explore traditional Nepalese building construction techniques and the significant role of timber in enhancing the structural integrity and longevity of these buildings. With a long history of utilizing materials that are readily available locally, particularly wood, clay, stone, Nepal a country renowned for its rich architectural legacy has built buildings employing these resources. The study delves into the various traditional building techniques employed in Nepal, including the intricate craftsmanship and cultural significance associated with them. Additionally, it investigates the unique properties of timber that make it an ideal choice for construction in the Nepalese context. The finding talks about the construction of buildings various techniques which are employed to assemble structures. This includes information, on building materials, functional space allocation and the terminologies used in building construction. These terminologies hold value as they are derived from our tradition, in building construction technology. The findings of this research can serve as a valuable resource for architects, engineers, conservationists, and policymakers involved in the restoration and sustainable development of traditional Nepalese buildings.

Ottoman Influence on Architecture: The Evolution of Spatial and Decorative Elements in the 19th Century Traditional Macedonian Architecture

Vernacular architecture of 19th-century Macedonia have undergone significant transformations, primarily influenced by Ottoman architectural systems. In this context, "vernacular houses" refer to traditional dwellings built by local communities using indigenous materials and construction techniques. This study examines how Ottoman spatial configurations and decorative elements have been incorporated into Macedonian architecture during this period, illustrating the complex interplay between external influences and local adaptations. By examining these changes, the research reveals the evolving architectural identity of Macedonia in the 19th century. The research employs various qualitative methods, including a comprehensive review of historical texts and scholarly literature related to Macedonian vernacular architecture. In addition, field surveys, photographic documentation and interviews with local experts and residents have been conducted to observe and record architectural changes. The study concludes that 19th-century Macedonian vernacular houses have experienced significant alterations due to the incorporation of Ottoman architectural principles. These changes have been evident in the spatial organization, decorative motifs, and construction methods, which have been drawn from Ottoman traditions while preserving the distinctive characteristics of the region’s vernacular architecture. This adaptive process underscores the dynamic nature of Macedonian architecture, which has evolved through a blend of local and external architectural elements.

Review of Quantifying Slope Stability and Assessing Landslide Susceptibility in Sabah, Malaysia

Landslides affect 3.7 million square kilometers of land and affect around 5% of the global population. In Malaysia, 21,000 locations are prone to landslides, with 16,000 in Peninsular Malaysia, 3,000 in Sabah, and 2,000 in Sarawak. Factors contributing to landslides include geological factors, weather conditions, slope steepness, vegetation, and human activities. Rainfall and geological conditions are significant external and internal causes. Landslides can be mitigated using various construction techniques, such as contagious bored pile, guniting, and rock anchoring. Rainfall and landslides are closely related, with rainfall affecting soil stability and causing slope failure. Prolonged rainfall can decrease slope stability due to increased water infiltration, leading to landslides. Analysis of slope stability is crucial in geotechnical engineering, assessing the stability of natural and man-made slopes. It involves assessing soil properties and identifying potential failure surfaces. Limit Equilibrium (LEM) and finite element (FE) methods are commonly used for slope stability assessments. LEM divides failure mass into slices, while FEM maintains global equilibrium until failure occurs. Both methods offer advantages, such as revealing working stress deformations with realistic soil compressibility data and tracking progressive failure to shear failure.

Modular Structure and BIM-Enabled Automation in Design and Construction

Abstract The construction industry is experiencing a profound transformation, driven by rapid technological advancements that aim to improve efficiency, sustainability, and precision across all stages of the building process. Among these advancements, Building Information Modeling (BIM) and automation technologies stand out as crucial innovations, particularly within the realm of modular construction. This paper delves into the integration of BIM with modular construction techniques and automation processes, exploring the ways in which these technologies are revolutionizing the industry. By conducting a detailed comparison between traditional modular construction methods and those enabled by BIM, this study demonstrates the significant enhancements in design accuracy, manufacturing efficiency, and on-site assembly quality. Furthermore, the paper addresses the sustainability benefits that arise from the adoption of BIM-enabled modular construction, including reduced waste, optimized resource use, and lower carbon footprints. Drawing upon case studies, industry practices, and real-world applications, this research offers a comprehensive analysis of how BIM-enabled automation is reshaping the construction landscape, setting new standards for future projects.

토성의 등장과 축성기술의 형성

This paper examines the emergence of ancient earthen fortifications and the construction techniques that laid their foundations, under the premise that the appearance of ancient fortresses coincides with the formation of fortress construction techniques. Ancient fortresses first appeared as defensive structures characterized by walls and later evolved into significant political and administrative symbols for states. Among these, earthen fortifications, as suggested by the character ‘城’, represent an early form of such defensive walls, indicating a long-standing history. Literature records show that these fortifications existed prior to the Three Kingdoms period. Archaeological investigations of Bronze Age ditch enclosures indicate that the soil excavated from creating these enclosures was used to build earthen walls, which gradually developed into the defensive settlements known as earthen fortifications. In terms of the formation of construction techniques, the ability to build earthen fortifications likely did not emerge suddenly during the Three Kingdoms period. Constructing walls with soil requires appropriate techniques, specifically the technique of compaction, which means ‘to firmly pack soil.’ This compaction technique stemmed from accumulated civil engineering experiences since the Neolithic period and laid the groundwork for building earthen fortifications and other earthen structures. Recent findings of compaction marks in domestic earthen fortifications reveal that this technology had matured by the Three Kingdoms period. Therefore, it can be concluded that the practice of compacting soil began as early as the Neolithic period, evolving through the earthen walls of Bronze Age ditch enclosures into the form of fortifications. However, there remains a gap between the earthen walls of the Bronze Age and the construction of Three Kingdoms period fortifications. Future archaeological research is expected to further elucidate the emergence of these fortifications and the early techniques used in their construction.