Construction Of Church Research Articles

Monasteries in the vicinity of Armenian capitals (7th–13th centuries ad): Archaeology of architectural and urban context

The article analyzes the spread of monasteries in the immediate vicinity or on distant approaches to two cities of Armenia of the late classical and medieval periods, considering information in the sources, the results of archaeological excavations and on-site inspections of the sites. The author reconstructs the sequence of the topography of churches and monasteries near the capitals of the country – Vagharshapat and Ani, identifying the similarities and differences between them. It is noted that the development of the system of shrines in the vicinity of Vagharshapat was determined by the very history of the establishment of Christianity. The main patrons of the church construction from the 4th to the 7th centuries AD were Catholicoses. In the vicinity of Ani, where a surge in the construction of monasteries occurred in the first half of the 11th century AD, there was no given programme, and the originators included the Bagratuni kings and influential princes. While the development of churches near Vagharshapat started under the Arsacid dynasty, continued after the abolition of their royal power, and reached its peak in the first half of the 7th century AD, the monasteries in the vicinity of Ani, founded under the Bagratids, were subsequently developed less actively. In addition, the paper also reveals the specific location of monastic complexes in the vicinity of Ani in connection with the terrain crossed strongly by gorges and the traditional concentration of towns and monasteries along the right, and less often the left, banks of the Akhuryan River. Both on the Ararat Plain and on the Shirak Plateau, the churches and complexes accompanying the capital cities transformed the landscape, so ecclesiastic architectural images marked the visual boundaries of a special, elite culture.

Bronze casting in Late Antiquity in the Marche Region

This essay reviews the discovery of three sites where deposits of bronze fragments have been found, in the Roman cities of Pisaurum, Sentinum and Potentia. Each site yielded small bronze fragments and some tools, which lead us to suppose that these were sites of Late Antique foundries, where large bronze statues and other bronze objects were broken up to be remelted. The foundries were located on land previously occupied by taverns in the forum area or by residential quarters. This means that the urban plan of the cities had already been partially transformed, probably due to Christianisation and the construction of churches, which became the new community centres, to the detriment of the older areas of the forum. The rampant poverty and shortage of raw materials, especially metals, made foundries indispensable and, consequently, their widespread presence, even within the cities, probably became customary. Perhaps the numerous bronze fragments found in other centres of the region should also be interpreted in this same sense, as indications of foundries, even if the structures where the metal was worked have not been preserved.

Vyazma’s Merchant Savva Timofeev Son Altukhov: the Problem of Determining the Personality and Motivation of the Temple-Builder of the 18th Century

The article deals with the little-studied problem of merchant temple building in a provincial Russian city of the 18th century using the example of Vyazma. The author applied anthropological, systemic and critical approaches. In the 18th century, donations for the construction of churches became a characteristic feature of the daily life of the merchant elite. The focus of the study is the history of the Vyazma merchant-temple builder S.T. Altukhov. The example of this merchant shows what problems a historian may encounter in the process of research. A critical approach to the publications of the 19th century made it possible to make a more plausible assumption about the date of construction of the Vyazma temple, for which the merchant Altukhov donated his capital. Establishing the identity of the merchant, determining the approximate date of his birth, the composition of the merchant family were studied on the basis of a comprehensive study of the materials of the first and second revisions, as well as parish registers. The problem of motivation for the temple-building activity of the merchant S.T. Altukhova is considered on the basis of the study of archival documents from the fund of the Chief Magistrate. When working on the article, the funds of the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts and the State Archive of the Smolensk Region were used. This article develops the topic of articles about the Vyazma merchant-temple builders of the 18th century, published by the author earlier.

Первый храм в Челябинской крепости в контексте сакрализации пространства в ходе русской колонизации Урала и Сибири

The first temple in the Chelyabinsk fortress in the context of the sacralization of space during the Russian colonization of the Urals and Siberia.The article, on the basis of the sources involved, deals in general terms with the main problems of temple building in the frontier zone in the process of Russian colonization of the Urals and Siberia from the late XVI to the 1730s. Sources are acts of record documentation: decrees, orders, reports. The purpose of the article is to analyze the relationship between state and church structures in temple building. The work is done within the framework of cultural history.The main institutions of the colonization process were the structures of the state and the church, the direct actors were peasants, merchants and servicemen of various categories, and the Posad population. The consolidation of Russia in new territories was carried out through the sacralization of space. The starting point in this process was the construction of the first Orthodox church. Initially, the question of building a temple was raised by both the secular authorities and parishioners, depending on the specific situation. Then the functions of establishing the ecclesiastical and administrative structure were delegated by the center to the field.If earlier the chain looked like this: Orthodox first settlers - the center in Moscow - the royal decree in place of the voivode - implementation, execution of the decision on the spot; then a new link appears at the diocesan level in the person of the bishop. This was caused, first of all, by the increasing scale of colonization, the complication of the secular and ecclesiastical-administrative structure. In the record correspondence, the idea of the impossibility of the existence of an Orthodox person without a temple can be traced.To find out the initiators of the nomination of the first temple in the Chelyabinsk fortress, an analysis of the names of the bishops of the Siberian Metropolis, in charge of which the fortress was located, was undertaken; monks of the Assumption Dalmatian Monastery in 1735, whose archimandrite was instructed to lay the church; the heads of the families of the fortress, recorded in the census of 1739 – 1740. From this it was concluded that the "symphony" of the initiative "from above" and the initiative "from below" was made.

CONSOLIDATION OF STATEHOOD: URBANISATION OF BORDER REGIONS OF THE PRINCIPALITY OF SERBIA IN 1833–1839

This paper elaborates on the measures and decisions of the authorities in the Principality of Serbia that aimed to demarcate the borders and urbanise the wider border areas, with the goal of greater separation of the Principality of Serbia from the Ottoman Empire. The chronological framework of the paper spans from 1833 when the provisions of the Hattisharif finally confirmed the border between the Ottoman Empire and the autonomous Principality of Serbia, to 1839, which marked the end of the first rule of Prince Miloš. During this period, the main directions of urbanisation in Serbia were determined. The paper indicates that the urbanisation of Serbia’s border regions involved measures directly related to border arrangements (establishment of border patrols, border crossings, customs, and quarantines), as well as measures implemented throughout the territory of the Principality (spatial organisation of towns, small towns, and villages, construction and restoration of churches and monasteries). The impact of migration movements after the establishment of the border on the emergence of new settlements or repopulation of deserted settlements in the border areas of the Principality of Serbia was considered, as well as the spatial planning of border varošes/towns and varošicas/small towns, and the establishment of new road routes towards the border. Spatial organisation of villages, although incomplete, was successfully implemented in the northwestern and northern border regions of the Principality of Serbia.

Early Response to the Conflict of Houses of Worship Construction through the CGR (Collaboration Governance Regime) Model in Tangerang Regency, Indonesia

The construction of houses of worship in some areas of Indonesia often causes social conflict. In some cases, the conflict of houses of worship can be resolved well and some are not resolved. The establishment of houses of worship in Tangerang Regency, Banten Province, namely the construction of HKBP Rogate, GKBJ Sepatan, and GBI Tanjakan churches also triggered the social conflict. This article aims to reveal the chronology of the conflict over the construction of the three churches and the local government's actions in overcoming the conflict issues that arose. These three cases were studied by researchers using a qualitative approach and analyzed using the CGR (Collaborative Governance Regime) model. This CGR model analysis is part of the early response of the parties related to the conflict and can reveal the weaknesses, and strengths in the conflict resolution of the establishment of houses of worship. The data collection method uses interview techniques and documentation studies. The findings of this research show that in the three cases of conflict, two cases show an escalating conflict (the emergence of mass action), and one case does not escalate. Conflict resolution against the establishment of the three houses of worship by the government and community leaders can prevent conflict escalation in the form of mass mobilization if the parties succeed in identifying problems at the location. Identification of parties who have the authority to determine the final direction of the conflict, especially those who reject the presence or establishment of houses of worship, is important in conflict resolution efforts. The success of conflict resolution efforts depends on the involvement of all parties who are authorized to determine the end of the conflict.

Ground-penetrating radar scanning and historical interpretation of the location of the destroyed Epiphany Cathedral in Kyiv Brotherhood Monastery (Ukraine)

Background The article presents results of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) scanning carried out in a site of the Epiphany Cathedral of Brotherhood Monastery in Kyiv, Ukraine, destroyed in 1936 by the Soviets. The Cathedral is known as a burial site of Hetman Petro Sahaidachnyi (1582–1622), a Ukrainian Cossack political and civic leader, guardian and patron of Kyiv Brotherhood Monastery. The collection of archival documents, blueprints, stock sources, photographs and cartographic materials of the 17th-19th centuries, as well as historical works of the 19th-21st centuries, were thoroughly analyzed and used as a basis for the interpretation of geophysical results. The set of historical data covers the period from 1615, that is, from the beginning of the construction of the wooden Epiphany Church, the predecessor of the cathedral, to the present day. Methods Summarized information about the construction, restoration after the fire, functioning and destruction of the Cathedral, as well as about the construction on its site in the 20th century, archaeological research in the 20th-21st centuries, was used to clarify possible location of hidden foundations and target GPR measurements. In this context, written testimonies of archaeologists who personally observed the foundations of the cathedral became especially valuable. The shielded GPR antennas, with a central frequency of 300 MHz and 700 MHz, is used for non-invasive investigation. Results GPR scanning specified the site and showed the best-preserved group of foundations of the western wall of the Epiphany Cathedral. Conclusions An integrated historical and geophysical study provided the basis to certify the foundation of the Epiphany Cathedral as a protected object of cultural heritage and facilitated its archaeological research.

EXPERIENCE IN THE ORGANISATION OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION WORK IN THE RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE OF SLOBOZHANSHCHYNA

In developing the sacred component of modern cities of Ukraine, new problems arise that go beyond the traditional understanding of church architecture as purely parochial and create numerous searches for solutions. Foremost, it concerns the functional expansion and activation of the role of church architecture in modern large-scale urban planning conditions. In the city, where predominantly chaotic interpretation of the urbanised space has returned, there are no other means of overcoming the crisis of new uniformity than turning to the complex development of similar-scale sacred structures. Such an understanding of urban problems requires the development of a new typology of sacred complexes and centres for their solution. No centralised construction organisation existed in Slobidska Ukraina in the 17th or 18th centuries. Professional architectural education in Slobozhanshchyna appeared in 1768 with the creation of additional classes at the Kharkiv Collegium, which produced architects P. A. Yaroslavskyi, S. P. Chernyshov, and others. With the introduction of the Kharkiv Provincial Government on December 12, 1796, Yaroslavskyi became the first Kharkiv provincial architect. He designed and supervised the construction of dozens of churches in the province. Gradually, the provincial authorities took over architectural and construction control and design. The Construction Department that emerged in the province in 1865 became the central institution that monitored the construction and acceptance of projects of places of worship for which the provincial engineer was in charge. The creation of controlling and regulatory institutions and the increased professionalism of architects made it possible to establish the organisation of design and construction work. In 1863, the position of diocesan architect emerged. The first to hold this position was the architect Kraievskyi, followed by F. I. Danylov (1865–1885). Each author had a concept of creativity and a thorough knowledge of architectural typology and theory. High professionalism stemmed from an excellent architectural education and knowledge of the basics of architectural craftsmanship, including expertise in architectural structures and forms drawn from regional Ukrainian traditions. The architect exercised constant control over all churches under construction, which allowed churches to be built precisely according to the project and meet the specified deadlines. The study found that architects had to follow the established rules, or their projects would not receive consideration. The Construction Department of the Kharkiv Provincial Government, responsible for overseeing the construction of churches, headed by the provincial engineer, strictly monitored the documentation of the building. The study reveals aspects of design and construction in the religious architecture of Slobozhanshchyna and presents the methods of design and construction work. The article discusses several architects engaged in design and construction work in Slobozhanshchyna and the functions of architectural and construction control and design. It provides examples of explanatory notes to the projects of religious buildings. The considered aspects of design and construction make it possible to assert that all these design and construction work methods aimed at creating highly sophisticated religious buildings. Keywords: design and construction work, religious buildings, architectural and construction control, explanatory note.

Jewellery Development in Right-Bank Ukraine and Galicia (XVI-XIX Centuries): Insights from Precious Ecclesiastical Artifacts

This article examines the development of jewellery in Right-Bank Ukraine and Galicia from the XVI to XIX centuries, focusing on precious ecclesiastical artifacts as evidence of the flourishing of Ukrainian goldsmithing. The relevance of the research stems from its detailed exploration of ecclesiastical jewellery in Right-Bank Ukraine and Galicia, providing a unique perspective on the region's artistic heritage and European cultural integration. The purpose is studying the artistic techniques used by Lviv and Kyiv jewellers in creating church artifacts like domes, icon covers, and other ecclesiastical items. The historical-genetic method enabled comprehensively analysing the evolution of Right-Bank Ukrainian jewellery in the example of church artifacts. Periodization identified three stages of Ukrainian goldsmithing's development in the XVI-XIX centuries. The system- structural method emphasized Western European cultural influence on overall Ukrainian jewellery. The typological approach reflected empirical reality of Right-Bank Ukrainian jewellery development as evidence of flourishing culture. Narrative described and explained the significance of jewellery artifacts at each stage of the formation of Ukrainian goldsmithing. Research materials included art organizations' experience, archaeological documentation, and museum exhibits. As a result of the research, the article presents the work of such Kyiv masters as: Iyeremiya Biletskyy, Ivan Ravych, and Matviy Narunovych. Detailed descriptions of works of art by Lviv and Kyiv masters of the XVI- XIX centuries are provided. And information about the Kyiv goldsmith shop is displayed. Conclusions confirm that Right-Bank Ukraine and Galicia were a stronghold of European jewellery styles in the 16th-19th centuries. The study of church artefacts by Ukrainian craftsmen shows a special cultural mentality shaped by centuries-old traditions and the multidenominational nature of Christian faiths. Thus, the materials of the article represent a practical value for historians, ethnographers, and architects who are interested in the construction of Orthodox churches; and jewellers engaged in artistic blacksmithing.

Pengujian Cone Penetration Test (SONDIR), di Gereja MRII Kota Ambon

Soil testing is very important in the development planning process, especially to assess the strength and stability of the soil as a foundation base. Improper soil conditions can result in structural damage to buildings. Therefore, soil testing is necessary to provide optimal foundation recommendations, ensuring the safety and sustainability of the building. This information is needed to provide recommendations for appropriate foundations, especially in the context of church construction which often has large and heavy structures. This research aims to evaluate the characteristics of the land around the MRII Church in Ambon City with a focus on the use of sondir technology. This activity covers the importance of a deep understanding of the physical properties of soil in the context of planning and construction of church buildings. The testing method involves the use of mechanical sondir to measure soil characteristics and map subsurface geological structures. Test results show significant variations in characteristics around the church location, with the possibility of rock layers or geological changes that have the potential to affect the construction of the church building and surrounding infrastructure. Based on factual data and sondir testing (CPT) in the field, a drilled pile type foundation is recommended. However, the recommended results can be changed or supplemented with other technical information/data considering that sondir testing cannot directly show the condition of soil layers. It is best to carry out further testing with Hand Boring, NSPT Drilling and laboratory testing to obtain more accurate soil conditions and supporting parameters.

Thermoluminescence studies of a Gothic church in Świebodzin from Silesia in Poland

The paper presents thermoluminescence (TL) studies that aim to establish the possibility of using such analysis to determine the date of the construction, transformation and/or rebuilding of a historical church. The determination of the age of building structures using the form of absolute dating that is now used by architects and archeologists is difficult and complex. A relatively large error of estimation can be observed in archeological studies. In the case of samples from the Middle Ages, such errors are not acceptable. The authors attempted to develop an alternative spectroscopic TL method for such studies, and proposed that the composition of bricks should be measured using X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy (EM) and TL spectra. The bricks for the testing were taken from internal walls and the walls in the attics of churches, i.e. from places built during the last stage of construction works. The TL measurements were made using x-ray and β source excitation within the temperature range of 25–500°C. Two different sizes of grains were studied: small (∼0.1 mm) and large (∼0.5 mm). A gothic church in Świebodzin from 1555, which has a well-known history of its construction, was selected for the investigations. Due to the fact that this church is 326 years younger than the two churches evaluated and described in [1], the composition of its bricks could be different. Therefore, the authors decided to compare the XRD data, EM results and TL spectra for bricks taken from all three churches. The intensities of the TL and the integrated TL intensities were determined. The measurement results are important for creating a relationship between the TL intensity and the date a building object was constructed. Moreover, thanks to this it was possible to verify the construction date of Saski Palace in Warsaw.

The struggle for the construction of places of worship of minority religions in Indonesia

The literature on the construction of places of worship has predominantly shown difficulties, rejection and disharmony among religious communities. This study aims to describe and analyzed the success story of the construction of the Santa Monica church in Tangerang. This is a qualitative study conducted over a month-long period using primary and secondary data. Primary data were obtained through observation and interviews, while secondary data were obtained through formal and informal policy reviews available online. The informants involved in this study amounted to eight people consisting of church leaders and administrators, local leaders, religious leaders, religious organizations and the Ministry of Religious Affairs. Data were analyzed using content analysis methods. The results of the study show that the ability of church leaders and administrators to build good social and cultural relations with the community was a key element in their success in obtaining permission to build the church. This was achieved through effective communication, dialogue and cooperation between the Catholic community, leaders and the predominantly Islamic local community. Active involvement in daily activities had a positive impact, fostering mutual trust and peaceful coexistence, ultimately resulting in the local community’s support and approval for the establishment of the place of worship. Thus, the church construction committee was able to meet all administrative requirements as stipulated by government regulations. This study recommends the importance of good social and cultural relations as the fundamental basis and determinant of success for religious communities seeking to construct places of worship.Contribution: This article contributes to the goal of HTS Theological Studies in promoting the transdisciplinary aspect of religious studies in the international theological arena, particularly in the study of religious harmony among communities in Indonesia.

Function and Meaning of Symbolism in the Memorial Ornaments of Munson and Lyman Tomb Ornaments: A Semiotic Study

This article is entitled “Function and Meaning of Symbolism in the Memorial Ornaments of Munson and Lyman Tomb Ornaments: A Semiotic Study.” The study aimed to describe the from, function, and meaning of symbolism in the Memorial of Munson and Lyman. The theory used to analyze the data was Charles Sander Pierce semiotic theory, using a descriptive qualitative method. The results of the study showed that there were 21 types of from, function, and meanings of symbols on the Munson and Lyman tomb ornaments , Namely : Relief ornaments of the SS Duncan ship & Relief ornaments of Mederika Ship, Releif ornaments of the merchant, Relief ornamen of Munson and Lyman meeting with Datuk Mangkuto, Relief ornaments of barter activies, Relief Ornaments of Martonun, Manduda, dan Paragat, Releif ornaments of going home from the garden, planting rice, Relief ornaments of Munson and Lyman showing the Bible as a sign language and the king’s guard bringing Munson and Lyman to the king, Relief ornaments of king panggalamei asking Munson and Lyman, Relief ornaments of Munson and Lyman in Uning-uningi, Relief ornaments of tragic that resulted in the death of Munson and Lyman & Relief ornaments of the cross Symbol, Relief ornaments of Onan Hariara, Relief ornaments of Nommensen arrival in Batak land, Relief ornaments of the community welcoming the arrival of Nommensen, Relief ornaments of the first church, Relief ornaments of the first Zending school being built and children already started going to school, Relief ornaments of Batak graduates from Nommensen education, Relief ornaments of negotiations and peace between the Batak and the Americans, Relief ornaments of the reconstruction of the padri war, Relief ornaments of the image of Jesus Christ, Tombstone. This research concludes that there are 21 forms of symbol functions that are important to understand the message contained in the Munson and Lyman Memorial Ornament. These symbols were created to represent Munson and Lyman's journey in spreading Christianity in Batak land. There are 21 types of symbol functions, including as means of transportation, trading tools, travel documentation, buying and selling transactions, visualizing weaving activities, agriculture, communication, judicial tools, accompanying traditional ceremony processes, determining the evangelist's burden, bartering places, missionary missions, church monuments, schools, graduations, peace symbols, Padri wars, Christian religion spread, and grave markers. There are 21 types of symbol meanings, including depicting Munson and Lyman's journey, urban trade, community life details, communication visualization, language translation, correct actions in misunderstandings, judicial processes, punishments, traditional rituals, Nommensen's arrival, community acceptance of Nommensen, church construction, community education, educational outcomes, peace, Christian religion spread, and the journey of spreading the Gospel in the land of Batak. Keywords: Memorial, Missionary, Munson and Lyman, Semiotic

APPLICATION OF THE “PILLAR-FREE GAVIT” PRINCIPLE IN RUSSIAN CHURCH ARCHITECTURE

The article analyses the experience of using the constructive technique of intersecting arches (according to the “gavit principle”), originating from Armenian medieval architecture, in Russian architecture of the second half of the 19th century - 20th century and at the turn of the 21st century. The author considers the experience of understanding this constructive ceiling system in the practice of modern church construction.

Роль епископии в социокультурном развитии Смоленской земли в XII-XIV вв.: к постановке проблемы

The article provides a comprehensive analysis of the cultural monuments of the Smolensk land of the 12-14 centuries, which could have been created thanks to the Diocese. The idea of the exceptional richness and versatility of the Smolensk culture of this period, which had a direct or indirect influence on the course of development of Russian medieval culture as a whole, both before and after the Mongol conquest, is revealed. Smolensk land in the pre-Mongolian period was one of the key regions of Rus'. At the beginning of the 13 century it was one of the four strongest lands, and representatives of the local princely dynasty simultaneously owned all the free tables: Kiev, Novgorod and Galich. This makes us look differently at the role and significance of Smolensk, not only in the political, but also in the cultural life of Rus'. The article analyzes the influence of the Diocese of Smolensk on the development of sociocultural processes in the Smolensk land in the 12-14 centuries. So, in Smolensk, through the efforts of the prince and the bishop, presumably, their own architectural school was formed, a characteristic feature of which is a special stepped-tower-like type of temple, the aspiration of architectural forms upwards, and the expressive decorativeness of the facade. Taking into account various traditions and developing them, the Smolensk masters found their own way. Smolensk architecture largely anticipated the coming changes in the architecture of North-Eastern Rus'. It seems significant that two artels operated in the city at once: princely and bishops. We can judge about the scope of church construction by the archaeological data found on the territory of Smolensk. Three churches of the 12th century have survived to this day: those are the Archangel Michael, John the Theologian, and the Apostles Peter and Paul. In parallel, monumental painting also developed, where the Smolensk masters were innovators and ahead of their time. It also formed its own artel of painters. Smolensk literacy was also distinguished by exceptional originality. Today we can talk about nine monuments that have come down to us, which are works of different genres and themes.

The Influence of Colonial Policy on the Destruction of National Cultural Identity and Ways of Overcoming its Consequences

The article analyses the aspect of the influence of colonial policy on the destruction of national cultural identity, in particular, on the destruction of traditional religious objects. The problem is traced on the example of the colonisation of Algeria by France, which resulted in the purposeful destruction and reconstruction of historical mosques, on the example of the colonisation of Ukraine by the Russian Empire, which prohibited the construction of churches in the Ukrainian style, and later by the Soviet Union, and on the example of the modern Russian-Ukrainian war, when Russia deliberately destroys all religious buildings, even those subordinate to the Russian-backed Church. Religious buildings, as the legacy of a given nation’s material culture, should be placed under conservation, as they are treasure to all of humanity. Examples of such positive thinking do exist. The study is complemented by the photofixation of the destruction of temples during the Russian-Ukrainian war, taken directly in the combat zone. The purpose of the study is to analyse the negative effects of colonial policy on the preservation of the national identity of religious objects and to propose ways to overcome them.

Paternalism, petitions and the politics of church construction in Alsace, c. 1850–1885

Abstract This article builds on recent works which challenge the dichotomy between religion and modern urban planning. The article focuses on a case-study in the Alsatian city of Mulhouse during the nineteenth century. Over a period of 30 years, Catholic parishioners and clergy repeatedly petitioned the town’s Calvinist industrial and municipal elite for a church to be built in the paternalist cités ouvrières housing district, culminating in the eventual construction of the church of Saint-Joseph by 1883. Through a close analysis of the archival records of these petitions, the discussions they sparked and the shifting local and national political dynamics of the city, this article argues that religious groups used myriad tactics to engage in modern planning and that municipal authorities were won over by these tactics if they were politically expedient.

The Architecture of Politics and the Politics of Architecture: A Comparative Approach to Parish Church Building and Civic Government in Late-Medieval Europe

AbstractChurch construction was one of the most challenging, and most political, tasks undertaken by medieval cities. Comparing examples from across Europe reveals profound differences, however, in both the architecture of politics and the politics of architecture; that is, how building projects were administered and how their administration shaped their socio-political significance. Although ranging across the continent, this article is centered on construction in two representative cities: Vienna and London. While the former had a small number of churches, all under the direct control of the mayor and council, the latter had over a hundred, each overseen by locally appointed officers. In Vienna, church construction was, thus, an important field of activity for the city government, which oversaw the work and celebrated its own leadership of the project; in London, it lay outside civic control and offered local opportunities for domination by wealthy families. This difference can be found across the continent, separating the large, old cities of England, northern France, Spain, and the Low Countries, which could have numerous churches, from smaller towns and cities both in these places and across the rest of central, northern, and southern Europe, which typically had a single, major parish church and only a few subordinate ones. This article considers the implications of these two contrasting models—centralized and decentralized, civic and parochial, high government and local politics—on how architectural production functioned as a field of political activity and how church building shaped local distributions and articulations of power in medieval Europe.

Наследие архимандрита Антонина (Капустина): Музей древностей в Иерусалиме

The article is devoted to the Museum of Antiquities of Archimandrite Antonin (Kapustin), head of the Russian Orthodox Mission in Jerusalem as an important part of his legacy. Between the middle of the 19th century and 1894, Archimandrite Antonin assembled extremely interesting collections of antiquities as a result of purposeful collection of artifacts purchased from antiquaries, received as gifts, found during archaeological excavations and construction of churches and pilgrimage hostels on the lands acquired by the Russian Mission. After Antonin's death, the anxiety of the scientific community for the fate of the Museum did not allow the Synod, which had cooled to his legacy after the registration of land ownership, to forget about the Museum of Antiquities. In the 20th century, the fate of the Museum was very complicated, but even today, although in a very reduced form, this ‘living encyclopedia of civilizations’ occupies an substantial place in Antonin's whole legacy.

Пути христианизации Скандинавии. IX–X века

Prior to the baptism of the rulers of Scandinavian countries and introduction of Christianity as an official religion, Scandinavians for several centuries familiarized themselves with Christian ideas and practices, on the one hand, in the course of trade connections, Viking expeditions, service as mercenaries in Western and Eastern Europe and, on the other hand, through missions from Germany and England. Contrary to traditional view that Christian missions, especially those launched from Hamburg-Bremen Archdiocese, played the dominant role in the process of Christianization of Scandinavia, recent studies give them an insignificant place since their results (which are understood as the baptism of rulers and nobles) are ‘negligible’. Representatives of both trends rely mostly on the information of written sources. An important, though yet understudied and ungeneralized source on the problems of ‘Christianization before Christianization’ are archaeological materials that can throw light on the time, intensity, and forms of the penetration of Christianity to the North. The purpose of this article is an attempt to collect at least some of the relevant archaeological materials and suggest their preliminary interpretation in comparison with the information from written sources. The main categories of possible evidence in material culture are burial customs, artifacts, and church construction. However, the interpretation of both single burials and finds like crosses or cruciform pendants as Christian is ambiguous in most cases. In the context of the discussed problem, the materials of large necropolis, first and foremost in Birka, are best studied at the moment, as well as the construction of early churches preceding stone buildings of the 12th an 13th centuries. These materials show that burials that can be interpreted as Christian and churches (built by missionaries or Christian neophytes) concentrate in the areas of intensive missionary activities. It testifies its productiveness in dissemination of Christian ideas in Scandinavia in the 9th and 10th centuries. Along with churches built by missioners in the largest trade centers like Birka, Hedeby, and Ribe, houses intended for divine service, usually rather small in size, were erected by recently baptizes nobles or stórbondir on their farms.