Constant Time Delay Procedure Research Articles

Learning to Effectively Implement Constant Time Delay Procedures to Teach Spelling

This study examined the effectiveness of a training procedure designed to teach a special education resource teacher the constant time delay procedures. In addition, the study examined the effectiveness of constant time delay procedures in teaching written spelling words to one 12-year-old male student with a learning disability. A multiple-probe design across behaviors was used to demonstrate the functional relationship between the time delay procedure and the student acquiring, maintaining, and generalizing 15 spelling words. The investigation specifically sought to address teacher-training issues related to instructional procedures, student acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. The teacher successfully implemented the procedure with 100% treatment integrity and the student learned to spell all 15 spelling words.

Effects of Visual Arts Instruction on the Mental Health of Adults With Mental Retardation and Mental Illness

Single-subject multiple probe designs were employed in two studies with 5 young adults who had a dual diagnosis of mental retardation and mental illness. Our aim was to determine effects of instruction designed to teach visual arts activity skills and promote personal expressiveness on acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of these skills and behaviors associated with these persons' mental health. In Study 1, a 5-second constant time delay procedure was used to teach three chosen art activities. In Study 2, an instructional package was used to promote personally expressive behaviors. After learning the skills in Study 1, participants in Study 2 displayed improvement in occurrence of behaviors associated with mental illness and increases in personally expressive behaviors.

Including Manual Signing as Nontargeted Information When Using a Constant Time Delay Procedure to Teach Receptive Identification of Packaged Food Items

This investigation extends the constant time delay research base by embedding nontargeted information in the task direction when teaching communication skills. Specifically, instructors taught receptive identification of packaged food items to 4 secondary students with moderate to severe disabilities and evaluated generalization to the community. In addition, instructors included the manual sign for each food item. The instructional strategy was a constant time delay procedure using a 5-s delay interval. The intervention, conducted within a multiple probe design across behaviors replicated across students, resulted in the acquisition and generalization of receptive identification of packaged food items by 3 out of 4 of the students. In addition, the students acquired the nontargeted manual signs with an average of 60% percent in the final probe session.

The Effects of Embedded Skill Instruction on the Acquisition of Target and Nontarget Skills in Preschoolers with Developmental Delays

Previous research on the constant time delay (CTD) procedure has demonstrated the effectiveness of the procedure with students with a range of disabilities. Most research on CTD has been implemented using a didactic format. In the current study, CTD was embedded in classroom activities and routines to teach counting to young children. In addition, nontarget information (the color of the object) was included in the task direction. A multiple-probe design across numbers replicated across children was used. The results indicated that CTD was effective in teaching numbers to all three children. The acquisition of nontarget information by two of the three children was also tracked; one of these two children acquired the nontarget information.

Using an Instructional Package Including Video Technology to Teach Self-Help Skills to Elementary Students with Mental Disabilities

This study investigated the effectiveness of a treatment package that included video technology (e.g., video modeling and video prompting) to teach three self-help skills (e.g., cleaning sunglasses, putting on a wrist watch, and zipping a jacket) to 3 elementary school students with mental disabilities in a small group setting. Using a constant time delay (CTD) procedure, observers measured the percentage of steps of the task analyses performed correctly before and after a video model prompt. A multiple probe design across behaviors, replicated across participants, demonstrated experimental control. The results indicate that an instructional package that includes video technology can be an effective method for teaching self-help skills to students with mental disabilities.

Effects on Future Learning of Presenting Non-Target Stimuli in Antecedent and Consequent Conditions

This investigation assessed the effects of presenting non-target stimuli in the antecedent and consequent events on the future learning of responses to those stimuli. A 4-s constant time delay procedure was implemented to teach students with mild to moderate disabilities to read sight words. Future target stimuli (i.e., stimuli that were presented during instructional sessions of initial target stimuli, but were not directly instructed or targeted) were presented in one of two conditions; (a) in the antecedent event, or (b) in the consequent event portion of each instructional trial. Future target stimuli consisted of sight words that were unrelated to the target stimuli. An adapted alternating treatments design was used to assess and compare the two instructional conditions. Also, after students achieved criterion for reading target sight words, constant time delay was implemented to teach the future target stimuli. The number of sessions and the number and percentage of errors through criterion for teaching target and future target stimuli were assessed to measure the efficiency of the two conditions. All students reached criterion on the target stimuli and then acquired the future target stimuli when taught. Students required fewer sessions to achieve criterion on future target stimuli compared to initial target stimuli. There were minimal differences between the two conditions (i.e., antecedent versus consequent).

Acquisition of incidental information during instruction for a response-chain skill

We examined the acquisition of incidental information and observational learning of incidental information by adolescents with moderate intellectual disabilities during school-directed systematic instruction. Effectiveness of constant time-delay instruction for vocational-skill acquisition was evaluated within a multiple-probe design across six dyads. Dyadic instructional arrangements allowed the assessment of incidental information acquired through observation. The constant time-delay procedure was effective in teaching the target vocational skill. In addition, participants acquired and retained approximately 50% of the incidental information to which they were exposed during the consequent events of constant time-delay instruction either through direct verbal presentation or through observation of their peers’ instruction.

Leisure Skills Instruction for Adolescents with Severe or Profound Developmental Disabilities

This investigation (a multiple probe design across behaviors) analyzed the effectiveness of a constant time delay procedure in teaching leisure skills to adolescents with severe or profound developmental disabilities. Data collected on specific dependent variables indicated increases in participants' approaches toward available leisure materials, choices made, appropriate use of leisure materials, and duration of sustained attention to leisure activities as they acquired leisure skills. Concurrently, classroom personnel offered their students an increasing number of opportunities to engage in self-determined behavior and in leisure activities. Results of the study are discussed in terms of designing instructional programs for individuals with severe or profound developmental disabilities that enhance both the learners' leisure skills and self-determined behavior.

Peer Tutoring: Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities to Deliver Time Delay Instruction

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a peer-mediated constant time delay procedure for teaching written spelling to fourth- and fifth-grade students identified as learning disabled. The six peer tutors (each with learning disabilities) taught each other to produce the written spelling for 15 five- to eight-letter words using a 3-s delay and a visual model prompt. A multiple probe design across behaviors (word sets) was used to evaluate the procedure. Data were collected on the number of sessions to criterion, trials to criterion, number and percent of errors, and direct instructional time. The classroom teacher prepared students to serve as tutors using a describe-model-guided practice-feedback sequence. Pre- and post-measures were conducted of generalization of the tutoring procedure as well as observational learning by the tutors. Results indicated that (a) peer tutors reliably implemented the time delay procedure, and (b) the tutor-implemented time delay procedure was effective in teaching written spelling to students identified as learning disabled.

The use of sequenced count-by and constant time delay methods of teaching basic multiplication facts using parent volunteer tutors

The effectiveness and efficiency of Constant Time Delay and Sequenced Count-By procedures in the teaching of multiplication facts was investigated using 43 children from Grades 3 to 6 having parents as tutors. Twenty randomly selected students received seven weeks instruction from their parents using the Constant Time Delay procedure and 23 students received seven weeks’ instruction from their parents using the Sequenced Count-By procedure. The matched control group of 43 students were given supervised home-learning tasks by their teacher over the same time period.

Embedding instructive feedback into teacher-student interactions during independent seat work

The effects of embedding a constant time delay procedure into an independent seat work activity and using instructive feedback were evaluated in this study. Seven students with mild disabilities participated in the study that occurred in their special education classroom. A multiple probe design across sets of target behaviors was used, and students' responses to instructive feedback stimuli were evaluated during each probe condition. The procedures were implemented with a high degree of fidelity, and the results indicate that (a) the students acquired the target behaviors taught with the constant time delay procedure that was embedded into independent seat work, and (b) the students acquired some but not all of the responses to the instructive feedback stimuli. These findings are discussed in terms of using instructive feedback in classrooms and future research on instructive feedback.

Impact of time delay, observational learning, and attentional cuing upon word recognition during integrated small-group instruction

The effects of constant time delay, observational learning opportunities, and differential attentional cuing were examined during the small-group instruction of students in an integrated setting. Three students, one individual with moderate mental retardation and two individuals characterized as at-risk learners, participated in learning sight words through direct instruction and observational-learning conditions. A multiple probe design across three students was combined with a multitreatment design across treatment conditions to assess the impact of instructional variables. Reliability of scoring and procedural integrity were estimated and social validity of outcomes was considered. Findings support the salience of the constant time delay procedure in facilitating word acquisition in small, heterogeneous, and inclusive group learning arrangements. Further, a significant amount of learning through observation occurred for all students under both a general and specific attentional cue condition. A slight but discernible advantage of using the specific cuing strategy of transcribing target and nontarget words was realized.

Small-Group Massed-Trial and Individually-Distributed-Trial Instruction With Preschoolers

This study compared the effectiveness and efficiency of using a small-group-massed-trial instructional format to an individually administered distributed-trial format in teaching preschool children with and without disabilities to name pictures. The trainer identified three pairs of pictures for each of 8 participants (37-59 months). Students learned the first pair in a small-group instructional arrangement with a massed-trial format and the second pair individually with a distributed-trial format. The third pair served as a no-instruction control set. Training included a constant time delay procedure with both formats, and an adapted alternating treatments design evaluated the effects. All children acquired the naming behaviors regardless of the instructional format; however, for 6 of the 8 children, distributed instruction was slightly more efficient. The procedures resulted in errorless learning for 3 children, and the embedded instruction resulted in fewer errors and lower error percentages for 3 of the 5 remaining children. These findings are discussed in terms of designing effective and efficient instructional programs in mainstreamed contexts.

Efficacy of constant time delay implemented by peer tutors in general education classrooms

We evaluated the effects of teaching 13 typically developing children to use constant time delay when tutoring three of their peers who had substantial disabilities. We measured the extent to which the tutors used the constant time delay procedure correctly and the tutees' correct performance on the skills being taught. A multiple probe design across behaviors was used. The results indicated that (a) the tutors used each step of the constant time delay with a high degree of procedural fidelity; (b) the students with disabilities acquired the skills that were taught during peer tutoring; and (c) modifications of the procedure were required for 2 of the 3 students with disabilities, and the peers tutors were able to implement the modifications. Implications for practice and future research are described.

Using the Constant Time Delay Procedure to Teach Task-Analyzed Gross Motor Skills to Individuals with Severe Intellectual Disabilities

It is imperative that teachers utilize effective and efficient instructional strategies to teach task-analyzed gross motor skills in physical education activities to individuals with severe disabilities. The purpose of this paper is to describe the constant time delay procedure, which has been shown to be effective in teaching task-analyzed fine motor skills in daily living and safety activities. In this article, guidelines are presented for teaching task-analyzed gross motor skills to individuals with severe intellectual disabilities. These guidelines are based on a review of the constant time delay procedure reported in the special education literature and current research being conducted by the authors.

Effects of two levels of procedural fidelity with constant time delay on children's learning

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of constant time delay delivered with high procedural fidelity to constant time delay with high procedural fidelity on all variables except delivery of the controlling prompt (i.e., on a mean of 44% of the trials, the controlling prompt was not delivered when it should have been provided). Six preschool children with disabilities were taught to identify photographs in two alternating conditions (e.g., high procedural fidelity and low procedural fidelity). An adapted alternating treatments design was used to evaluate the instructional conditions on the effectiveness and efficiency of instruction. In addition, daily measures were taken of the teacher's implementation of each step of the constant time delay procedures which indicated that the two conditions were implemented as planned. The results indicate that both conditions were effective for four children; for three of these, the high procedural fidelity condition resulted in more efficient learning. For the fifth child, the high-fidelity condition resulted in criterion level responding, but the low fidelity condition did not. However, when the high fidelity procedure and trial-by-trial reinforcement were used for the low-fidelity stimuli, these also were acquired. For the sixth child, neither procedure was effective; thus, the high fidelity condition was used alone and resulted in learning. The results are discussed in terms of using the constant time delay procedure and studying the procedural fidelity of other strategies.

Using microswitches to teach toy use

The effects of using a five-second constant time delay procedure to teach young students with multiple disabilities to activate battery-operated toys through microswitches were studied. The constant time delay procedure using a full physical prompt as the controlling prompt was effective in transferring stimulus control for each student with at least one switch. A multiple probe design using intermittent probe sessions across behaviors and subjects demonstrated experimental control. Advantages and disadvantages of using microswitches are discussed. Future research issues are addressed.

Use of Constant Time Delay in Teaching Multiplication Facts to Students with Learning Disabilities

This study investigated the effectiveness and efficiency of a constant time-delay procedure in teaching multiplication facts to three male and two female elementary school students, aged 9 years 6 months to 12 years 5 months, identified as learning disabled. The five students were taught unknown facts using a 4-second constant time-delay procedure. Data were collected on generalization to a paper-and-pencil task, to a horizontal display orientation, and to the reverse fact, as well as incidentally acquired ability to solve missing-factor problems. Results indicated that the near-errorless learning procedure was effective and efficient in teaching multiplication facts to students with learning disabilities. Learning generalized to a paper-and-pencil task, to a different presentation orientation, and to the reverse fact.

Effects of instructive feedback on future learning

This study evaluated the effects of presenting instructive feedback for current target behaviors when teaching preschoolers in dyads to name four stimulus variations. Behaviors for each of the four types of stimuli were divided into two sets and instructed sequentially with a 3-second constant time delay procedure. During instruction, correct responses to one set of behaviors received a token, verbal praise, and presentation and verbal description of the future target stimuli in one daily session. In the other daily session, correct responses received only tokens and verbal praise. A parallel treatments design (Gast & Wolery, 1988) was used to compare the effectiveness and efficiency of the two conditions. Results indicate that: (a) three of the four children learned all future behaviors, (b) presentation of instructive feedback did not interfere with learning, and (c) in terms of direct instruction time required by the teacher, future behaviors were acquired more efficiently.

The acquisition of independent dressing skills by students with multiple disabilities

A 5-second constant time delay procedure was successful in teaching two students with multiple disabilities four dressing skills: putting on shirt, pants, socks, and jacket. Training was conducted with multiple examplars of oversized clothing. Criterion was based on student performance during daily probe sessions in which students were required to dress with their own regular-sized clothing. A multiple probe design across behaviors and replicated across students was used to evaluate the training procedure. Both students acquired the targeted dressing skills and generalized responses to their own clothing. The procedure resulted in a low percentage of student errors (1.35%). In addition, students maintained the behaviors with 87–100% accuracy over an 18 week period of time. Follow-up data collected during the next school year indicated that students completed the behaviors with at least a mean of 83% accuracy.