Conspiracy Beliefs Research Articles

The role of interdependent self-construal in mitigating the effect of conspiratorial beliefs on vaccine acceptance.

Infectious diseases pose significant challenges to public health, leading to illness and even death. Vaccinations are vital for protecting society, yet beliefs in conspiracy theories related to infectious diseases increase vaccine hesitancy. This paper delves into vaccination decisions in the context of COVID-19, which continues to strain the health care system. While past research focuses on countering conspiratorial beliefs with cognitive persuasion interventions, we propose a social intervention as an alternative. Our novel intervention seeks to mitigate the effects of conspiratorial beliefs by fostering individuals' interdependent self-construal - viewing oneself in the context of social relationships. Interdependent self-construal was operationalized in multiple ways (measured in Studies 1, 2 and 3; manipulated to test causality in Studies 4 and 5). Conspiratorial beliefs were also manipulated in Study 5. The results show that the association between conspiratorial beliefs and vaccine hesitancy is weakened among individuals whose interdependent self-construal is more accessible. Moreover, this effect was mediated by prosocial motivation. We discuss the implications of our findings for developing and communicating health policies and propose potential contexts where this intervention may be relevant, thereby providing valuable insights into enhancing societal well-being in the face of conspiratorial beliefs.

Beyond the foreign language effect: unravelling the impact of l2 proficiency on rationality

Abstract This study investigated the impact of reading statements in a second language (L2) versus the first language (L1) on core knowledge confusion (CKC), superstition, and conspiracy beliefs. Previous research on the Foreign Language Effect (FLE) suggests that using an L2 elicits less intense emotional reactions, promotes rational decision-making, reduces risk aversion, causality bias and superstition alters the perception of dishonesty and crime, and increases tolerance of ambiguity. Our results do not support the expected FLE and found instead an effect of L2 proficiency: Participants with lower proficiency exhibited more CKC, were more superstitious and believed more in conspiracy theories, regardless of whether they were tested in L1 or L2. The study emphasises the importance of considering L2 proficiency when investigating the effect of language on decision-making and judgements: It—or related factors—may influence how material is judged, contributing to the FLE, or even creating an artificial effect.

The effect of scientific conspiracy theories on scepticism towards biotechnologies.

Many conspiracy theories implicate scientists and science. We investigated the impact of exposure to scientific conspiracies about biotechnologies. Across three preregistered online studies (Ns = 1,000), participants who read information about conspiracies involving agribiotechnology companies or biobank scientists were more likely to endorse conspiracies. Other effects of exposure to conspiracy information were mixed. In Study 1, reading about an agricultural biotechnology conspiracy had a small significant effect on reducing intentions to eat genetically modified food. In Study 2, exposure to a conspiracy involving biobank scientists decreased support for biobanks, mediated by decreased trust in biobank scientists. In Study 3, this conspiracy had no effect on wider beliefs of the role of science in society (science populism), nor support of genetically modified food-promoting policies. Overall, we found that exposure to conspiracies involving scientific claims increased conspiracy belief endorsement and can further negative effects. However, the effects of conspiracies on science populism appear limited.

Delusion-proneness predicts COVID-19 vaccination behavior.

Vaccination-related conspiracy ideation is related to reduced compliance with public health advice globally. Such beliefs have previously been linked to the delusion-proneness trait. However, it is not known how this extends to getting vaccinated. Here, we examined how delusion-proneness, as assessed by Peters et al. Delusions Inventory (PDI), is associated with COVID-19 vaccination in a sample of 273 subjects. We also examined whether delusion-proneness predicted the time to get vaccinated, after the vaccine became available. Unvaccinated subjects were more delusion-prone than vaccinated subjects (W=2225.5, p<0.001, effect-size=0.27). Among vaccinated subjects, higher delusion-proneness was related to longer time to get vaccinated ( =0.27, p<0.001). These effects remained after adjusting for anxiety, ADHD, and ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) traits as well as for psychiatric diagnoses and sex. Path analyses indicated that the effect of delusion-proneness on vaccination rate was strongly mediated through COVID-19 conspiracy ideation, suggesting that delusion prone individuals first develop specific delusion-like ideas regarding vaccination, which then delays vaccination. An exploratory analysis of written text by subjects instructed to explain why they had vaccinated or not, revealed a difference in reasoning between the groups. Unvaccinated individuals were primarily motivated by concerns about personal safety and potential side effects, while vaccinated individuals stated a desire to protect themselves and others as the primary reasons to get vaccinated. Our results suggest that delusion-proneness is a key factor for attaining conspiracy beliefs, at least in relation to COVID-19 pandemic, and associated with lower vaccination rates as well as longer time to get vaccinated.

Assessing the role of conspiracy beliefs in oncological treatment decisions: An experimental approach.

Cancer is an important issue and a model topic for misinformatfion researchers. The present research experimentally investigates the effect of cancer-related conspiracy beliefs and misinformation on oncology treatment intentions in a cancer-free population. In three pre-registered studies (N total = 1020), participants were asked to put themselves in the shoes of a patient recommended for chemotherapy. Study 1 (N = 300) failed to experimentally manipulate cancer-related conspiracy beliefs with exposure to a health scandal not related to cancer. In Study 2 (N = 258), exposure to a pro-conspiracy (vs. anti-conspiracy) content related to cancer treatment was associated with more conspiracy beliefs, less intention to use chemotherapy and more intentions to use unconventional medicines. Exploratory analyses revealed that these effects were conditioned by the credibility of the misinformation. Study 3 (N = 462) replicated these findings using a full experimental design. Exposure (vs. no exposure) to a warning and accuracy prompt, prior to exposure to the pro-conspiracy content, was found to be effective in reducing its credibility and preventing its detrimental effects. These findings corroborate the existence of an effect of conspiracy beliefs on treatment intentions in oncology and also suggest several ways to mitigate them.

The Ant and the Grasshopper: Does Biased Cognition Compromise Agency in the Case of Delusions and Conspiracy Theories?

AbstractThis paper starts from an observation of our practices: when people are ascribed delusional beliefs or conspiracy beliefs, they tend to be excluded from shared epistemic projects relevant to the content of their beliefs. What might motivate this exclusion? One possibility is that delusional beliefs and conspiracy beliefs are considered as evidence of irrationality and pathology, and thus endorsing them suggests that one’s epistemic agency is compromised, at least in some contexts. One common argument for the irrational and pathological nature of delusional beliefs and conspiracy beliefs lies in their being the outputs of faulty cognition. There are some areas of overlap in the cognitive antecedents of delusional beliefs and conspiracy beliefs as identified in the empirical literature. For instance, some biases and thinking styles have been correlated either with the adoption of delusional beliefs and conspiracy beliefs, or with the strength of conviction in such beliefs. The paper challenges the claim that, if delusional beliefs and conspiracy beliefs are the outputs of biased cognition, then it is justified to exclude people endorsing delusional beliefs and conspiracy beliefs from epistemic projects relevant to the content of their beliefs. The relevant biases and thinking styles are widespread in the non-clinical population, do not need to be part of a dysfunctional cognitive process, and can be adaptive in some contexts.

Predictors of climate change conspiracy beliefs: collective narcissism, paranoid thoughts, and distrust in science

Predictors of climate change conspiracy beliefs: collective narcissism, paranoid thoughts, and distrust in science

Does it matter how we measure conspiracy beliefs? A test of three measurement approaches

AbstractObjectivesIn this article, we examine the extent to which respondents’ support for conspiratorial claims depends on question format. Measuring conspiracy theory beliefs in the general population is challenging, and properly capturing these beliefs is necessary if we are to understand them.MethodsWe conducted a preregistered vignette experiment of Canadian respondents (N = 3,518) in February 2024. In our experiment, we introduced survey respondents to conspiratorial claims in one of three ways: (1) by asking them whether they support a conspiratorial claim directly through a Likert scale with the response set from very likely to not likely at all, (2) by offering respondents a binary choice between a conspiratorial claim and an alternative claim, and (3) by offering respondents a trichotomous choice between a conspiratorial claim, an alternative claim, and an equally likely option.ResultsWe find the trichotomous format produces the most conservative estimates of conspiracy endorsement, while the Likert format produces the most permissive estimates. In some cases, the percentage of respondents who endorsed conspiracy theories in the Likert questions was more than three times as high as in the trichotomous format, and in many cases was around twice as large.ConclusionDifferent question formats lead to substantially different estimates of conspiracy beliefs. While we believe that it is impossible to create completely bias‐free questions measuring conspiracy belief, researchers must acknowledge the likely biases (in particular, social desirability bias and acquiescence bias) that may be present in their survey designs.

Conspiracy Thinking, Conspiracy Beliefs, Denialism, Motivation, and COVID-19 Vaccination Intentions in Costa Rica

ABSTRACT An observational cross-sectional study was conducted among inhabitants of Costa Rica to examine motivational determinants of COVID-19 vaccination intentions (CVI), as well as to better understand the role of a set of conspiracy-related variables within the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Data were collected online, and a subsample of those not yet vaccinated (N = 406, age = 44.35, S. D. = 13.23, 74.9% women) was selected. They reported TPB-variables, risk perception, conspiracy-related variables, and sociodemographic information. Structural equation was used to model the assumption that conspiracy beliefs presented direct and indirect effects on intentions. Conspiracy thinking, denialism, and sociodemographic information were also specified as determinants of conspiracy beliefs and vaccination intentions. Most determinants presented direct effects on intentions. Only perceived behavioral control, denialism, and conspiracy thinking presented no direct effects on intentions. Conspiracy beliefs had indirect effects on intentions via most TPB-variables and risk perception. Conspiracy beliefs were predicted only by conspiracy thinking, gender (male), and education. Sociodemographic variables had no effects on intentions. Evidence suggested that a mechanism integrating conspiracy-related variables, risk perception, and TPB-variables predicted CVI. Education and gender played a role in the onset of conspiracy beliefs and thereafter vaccination intentions.

Extremist narratives in the digital mainstream

This article employs a mixed-methods approach to explore the narrative articulation of crises in discussions around immigration and integration on Flashback Forum in Sweden. Using a combination of topic modelling and narrative analysis, it follows a two-step research design. First, topic modelling helps to identify key topics in the data and select a corpus for qualitative analysis. Second, drawing on Berger’s (2018) extremist crisis typology, we explore the crisis-narrative constructions around these topics, highlighting the extremist components within these. Our findings show that the prevalent topics in these discussions are not about immigration per se – rather, they address societal issues where perceived crises with immigration at their root are articulated in terms of how they disrupt everyday life in Sweden. Our analysis reveals how mundane concerns around immigration ventilated on Flashback mix with overtly extremist discourse and conspiracy beliefs, explicating Flashback as a site of everyday extremism.

Narrative misinformation from a credible source can be discredited with counternarrative

Former government intelligence officer David Grusch became a hot new topic in the UFO world when he declared that the government was hiding an alien ship crash retrieval program. Can this media coverage be influential in increasing belief in UFOs? And can a credible critic of Grusch's claims successfully negate the impact of the media coverage on the acceptance of misinformation? A three-condition experiment (N\,=\,287) showed that a counternarrative can successfully negate the influence of his claims on conspiratorial beliefs. We suggest that these results have practical implications for journalists in their coverage of controversial claims.

Individual differences in detecting and sharing misinformation: Positive schizotypy, conspiracy beliefs, and autism

Misinformation is widespread, but only a minority of social media users actively share it. This paper considers whether three aspects of individual differences - positive schizotypy, conspiracy beliefs, and autism - differentiate those who believe in and share misinformation, from those who do not. Study 1 (N = 451) considered the effects of these variables on veracity discernment (i.e., the ability to differentiate true and false information). Higher levels of positive schizotypy and conspiracy beliefs were independently associated with poorer veracity discernment. Secondary analyses suggested that the effect of positive schizotypy might operate through reliance on intuitive rather than reflective thought, while the effect of conspiracy beliefs might arise from higher levels of gullibility. While autism did not generally affect veracity discernment, moderation analysis suggested that it improved veracity discernment among individuals high in positive schizotypy. Paradoxically however, autistic individuals were more likely to report having shared false political information in the past. Study 2 (N = 676) compared data from a new sample of autistic individuals with a sample from previous research. Again, autistic individuals were more likely to report having shared false political information, but did not differ in performance on a veracity discernment task.

Covid-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in Pakistan: A Cross-Sectional Study to Assess Resistance and Related Fears and Misconceptions

Objective: The purpose of this study was to assess willingness to receive COVID-19 vaccine in Pakistan and to understand the reasons causing hesitation towards vaccine administration. Study Design: A cross-sectional study was done through an online survey that was created using google forms. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted online from Mar to Aug 2021 in different cities of Pakistan employing nonprobability convenience sampling technique. The link to the questionnaire was shared on different social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook. Methodology: Any individual over the age of 16 and willing to fill the questionnaire was enrolled. Questionnaire used were standardized Oxford COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy scale to assess intent and Oxford general vaccine hesitancy scale to assess attitude towards vaccinations in general. SPSS v25 was used for data analysis. Results: A total of 589 valid responses were finally analyzed. Among the respondents, 24%(141) showed at least some hesitancy regarding COIVD-19 vaccination and 9%(53) of the respondents showed extreme hesitancy. The Pearson correlation coefficient indicated a significant positive correlation (p&lt;0.000) between hesitancy to childhood vaccines and COVID vaccine hesitancy. There was also a significant correlation (p&lt;0.000) between belief in conspiracy’s related to COVID-19 virus and refusal to get vaccinated. Conclusion: Vaccine hesitancy is present in roughly 1/4th of the study population. Conspiracy theories and low vaccine acceptance among the general public pose a severe danger to COVID-19 vaccination success. Public vaccine education programs should be started to educate the public regarding their fear of vaccination.

COVID-19 Parental Vaccine Hesitancy: The Role of Trust in Science and Conspiracy Beliefs.

Parent vaccine hesitancy is a sensitive topic despite the benefits associated with children's vaccination. Especially regarding the COVID-19 vaccination, parents displayed concerns about children's vaccination, questioning their effectiveness and security. Although several studies were conducted on the general population, few studies investigated this relationship on parents' intentions. An online survey was advertised from May to December 2022 on social networks, collecting data from 109 participants (90% F; mean age: 41.34 years, SD: ±6.40). The survey assessed sociodemographic characteristics, vaccine hesitancy through the Parents Attitude towards Childhood Vaccine-PAVC, trust in science through the Belief in Science Scale-BISS, and conspiracy beliefs through the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale-GCBS. In our sample, 29 parents (26.6%) scored more than 50 points to PAVC and, for this reason, were considered hesitant. Moreover, more than half of parents (60.6%) declared that they did not intend to vaccinate their children in the future. The path analysis model showed that parents with low education tended to have higher conspiracy beliefs (β = -0.40). Holding conspiracy beliefs (β = 0.28) and having low trust in science (β = -0.23) was associated with higher parent hesitancy and, in turn, no future intention to vaccinate their children for COVID-19 (OR = 0.83, p < 0.001). The results of the current paper suggest that targeted campaigns should be aimed at parents with lower levels of education, mainly on social media, debunking the most common fake news or myths, independently from the type of vaccine, and highlighting the importance of scientific research for improving people's living conditions.

A study of some psychological variables as predictors of COVID-19 vaccination anxiety among Faculty Members of Ain Shams University

The study aimed to investigate the relative contribution of each of psychasthenia, psychological flexibility, suggestibility, and conspiracy beliefs in predicting the anxiety of vaccination with the anti COVID-19 vaccine among faculty members at Ain Shams University (ASU). Examining the difference in the sample’s scores on the vaccination anxiety scale and its sub-factors according to the variables (age—chronic diseases—academic specialization—previous infection with COVID-19—gender), the sample of the study included 139 faculty members at Ain Shams University aged ranged from 23 to 78 years, with a mean of 49.52 years, and a standard deviation of 13.29 years. The vaccination anxiety scale, psychasthenia scale, psychological flexibility scale, suggestibility scale, and conspiracy beliefs scale were used to collect data. The results revealed that the variables of suggestibility and conspiracy beliefs significantly contribute to predicting the vaccination anxiety among faculty members at Ain Shams University. There is a significant difference in the average scores on the vaccination anxiety scale according to age, with the difference in favor of the age group less than fifty years, as well as according to the presence/absence of a previous infection with COVID-19, with the vaccination anxiety being higher for those who were previously infected. There has been no observed significant difference according to the presence/absence of chronic diseases or academic specialization.

Conspiracy mentality in autistic and non-autistic individuals

ABSTRACT Background Belief in conspiracy theories has emerged across times and cultures. While previous accounts attributed conspiracy beliefs to mental health conditions, accumulating research suggests that conspiracy theories are common among the general population. In the present study we examined whether conspiracy mentality – that is, a general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories – differed between a group of autistic adults and a general population sample. Methods This study included an autistic sample (n = 682) and a general population sample (n = 4358). Participants’ conspiracy mentality was measured using the Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire (CMQ). Results A one-way ANCOVA (controlling for participants’ age, gender, educational level, and ethnicity) revealed no difference in conspiracy mentality between an autism and a community sample. Conclusions The current study suggests that being autistic, or having more autistic traits, does not predict conspiracy mentality. These findings underscore that autism does not predispose people to conspiracy theories and suggest that autism is neither a risk factor for, nor a protective factor against, conspiracy mentality.

Witchcraft beliefs and conspiracy theorizing: Evidence from Tanzania and cross‐national datasets

AbstractThis article suggests that since people who believe in magic and those who believe in conspiracy theories produce meaning and make sense of the world by engaging in the same process of signification, they should be more likely to have one such belief if they hold the other. To test this proposition, we perform both macro‐ and micro‐level analyses using, respectively, cross‐national datasets and an original set of Tanzanian data. Our findings from both sets of analyses reveal a strong association between witchcraft beliefs and the belief in conspiracy theories.Related ArticlesGainous, Jason, and Bill Radunovich. 2008. “Religion and Core Values: A Reformulation of the Funnel of Causality.” Politics &amp; Policy 33(1): 154–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747‐1346.2005.tb00213.x.Richey, Sean. 2017. “A Birther and a Truther: The Influence of the Authoritarian Personality on Conspiracy Beliefs.” Politics &amp; Policy 45(3): 465–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12206.Tubadji, Annie. 2023. “You'll Never Walk Alone: Loneliness, Religion, and Politico‐economic Transformation.” Politics &amp; Policy 51(4): 661–95. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12538.

Vaccine conspiracy beliefs are the main determinant of adult vaccine hesitancy

Abstract Background Many factors influence the level of vaccine hesitancy. The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated that conspiracy beliefs are an important element of overwhelming misinformation. The main aim of the study was to assess the relationship between vaccine hesitancy (VH) and vaccine conspiracy beliefs (VCB) in Polish society. Methods The analysis was conducted using data from an online survey of 2189 Internet users conducted in November 2021. Uni- (ULRM) and multivariable linear regression (MLRM) models were developed for vaccine hesitancy as a dependent variable. The independent variables included VCB score (VCBS), health (HL) and e-health literacy (eHL), Internet (IU) and social media use (SMU), political views (PV), and sociodemographic variables. Results The VCBS, eHL, HL, age, income, vocational and marital status, place of residence, PV, IU, and SMU were significant predictors of VH in ULRMs. A significant relationship with VH was maintained in MLRM for all independent variables enlisted earlier, apart from age, income, and vocational status. Respondents with higher VCBS were more likely to have higher VH (B, 95%CI: 0.38, 0.37-0.40). Those with undetermined HL had higher VH than persons with sufficient HL (B, 95%CI: 0.13, 0.06-0.20). A higher level of eHL predicted a lower level of VH (B, 95%CI: -0.01, -0.012 - -0.03). Lower IU and higher SMU were associated with higher VH (B, 95%CI: 0.16, 0.02-0.30, and 0.10, 0.03-0.17, respectively). Supporters of far right-wing party showed higher HV than supporters of the governmental party (B, 95%CI: 0.16, 0.07-0.27). Finally, singles showed higher HV than married (B, 95%CI: 0.07, 0.01-0.13), and residents of small cities had higher HV than residents of rural areas (B, 95%CI: 0.08, 0.004-0.15). Conclusions The vaccine conspiracy beliefs play a major role in the development of VH. The interventions aimed at the change of antivaccination attitudes should address the problem of widespread conspiracy beliefs. Key messages • Conspiracy beliefs are an important determinant of attitudes toward vaccination. • The development of adequate digital health literacy may be a protective factor against vaccine hesitancy.

The Theory of Dyadic Morality and Moral Identity Explain the Public's Response to Harm Done by Government and Organisations

ABSTRACTHarm functions complexly in moral judgement but has been treated differently in the Social Intuitionist Model (SIM) and the Theory of Dyadic Morality (TDM). Both the SIM and TDM see felt harm as an outcome of experienced negative moral emotions (e.g., disgust), but the SIM regards harm as a kind of epiphenomenon in the sense that it does not affect moral judgement or behaviour, whereas the TDM interprets harm as an essential mediator of the link between negative moral emotions and immorality. The TDM also develops an explanation for how harm functions to initiate reactions to triggering events marked by an intentional agent causing injury to a vulnerable social actor. Here norms serve a regulatory function modulating the effects of harm committed by the agent on negative moral emotions. We conduct two experiments on representative samples of adults () and address two different moral contexts (companies doing badly and government doing badly with respect to a threatened health crisis), two different normative moderators (moral identity and belief in conspiracies) and two different moral action tendencies (intentions and word of mouth). Harm is found to have direct and contingent mediated effects on moral action tendencies, in accord with the TDM. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

My Body, My Choice? Examining the Distinct Profiles Underlying Attitudes Toward Abortion and COVID-19 Mandates

Protestors recently repurposed the abortion rights’ mantra, “my body, my choice,” to oppose COVID-19 mandates. But do those who oppose public health mandates fully support the right to choose? We answer this question by using exploratory analyses to identify the unique response patterns underlying support for abortion and COVID-19 mandates in random samples from the United States (Study 1; N = 2,331) and New Zealand (Study 2; N = 33,310). Latent profile analyses revealed a small subgroup in both countries (12.6% and 3.4% of the respective samples) who opposed mandates. Yet contrary to the “my body, my choice” rhetoric seen at anti-mandate protests, they also opposed abortion. Across both studies, those in the Anti-Mandate profile tended to be more religious, conservative, and distrustful of institutions. In Study 2, they were also low on cognitive consistency and high on conspiracy belief. Finally, the Anti-Mandate profile was opposed to free speech critical of both the United States and religion (Study 1), high on sexual prejudice (both studies), unsupportive of progressive protests (but supportive of reactionary protests; Study 2), and likely to vote for conservative parties (both studies). These results reveal the mobilization potential of the anti-mandate movement, uncover important contradictions within its members, and illustrate the nuanced ways in which opposition to gender policies (i.e., reproductive rights) coalesce with reactionary protests.