Consideration Of Others Research Articles

The Place of Kohlberg's Theory in Moral Education

Abstract A Skinnerian scenario is first sketched of our moral malaise and the contours of its cure. Moral objections to it are not elaborated. Rather it is used to introduce Kohlberg's objection to a ‘bag of virtues’ approach and his distinction between moral learning and moral development. Kohlberg's account of development is criticized on three main grounds: (i) he never shows that his stages form a logically hierarchical sequence; (ii) his account of ‘cognitive stimulation’, as the determinant of progression from stage to stage is too vague; (iii) he includes, and must include, concern for human welfare as a fundamental principle along with justice, but gives no account of the development of consideration for others, that is fundamental to morality. Indeed he shows a general neglect of the affective side of moral development. The work of Hoffman, Peevers and Secord is used to sketch how Kohlberg's account might be supplemented by a developmental account of concern for others. Mention is also made of the importance of giving an account of the more negative emotions of shame and guilt. The critique ends with logical and practical considerations which indicate the importance of the content of morality, which Kohlberg summarily dismisses by his contemptuous references to a ‘bag of virtues’. The overall purpose of the critique is to provide a constructive, if speculative, supplement to Kohlberg rather than to concentrate on negative criticisms.

Changes in Church-Related Behavior and Attitudes of Catholic Students, 1961-1971

The Marquette Study of Student Values analyzes religious practices, moral values, and attitudes among Catholic college students. From 1961 to 1971 decreasingfrequency of student attendance at Mass and Confession together with attitudinal changes toward religious practices are evident. Changes in attitudes about dating, decreased scrupulosity in areas of personal honesty and responsibility, looser attitudes toward selected items of personal morality, and increased consideration for others also were revealed. Most changes may be interpreted as reflecting decreased compliance with traditional Church norms, increased conformity to values of American society, and conflicting values related to both cultural pluralism and pluralism within the Catholic Church.

Sex differences in moral internalization and values.

The subjects were fifth- and seventh-grade white middle-class children and their parents. The major moral internalization indices pertain to internal moral judgment, guilt intensity, and fear of punishment. The findings support the prevalent view that consideration for others is more salient in females. They also suggest, with considerable consistency (especially in adults) that moral transgressions are more likely to be associated with guilt in females and fear in males. No sex differences in internal moral judgment were obtained. Evidence was presented suggesting that the differences in children may be due partly to different discipline and affection patterns. It was also suggested that the results for adults as well as children might be explained by differential sex-role socialization as well as by increasing pressures on males over the life cycle to achieve and succeed, which may often conflict with concerns about the welfare of others.

Notes On Greek Philosophy

Notes On Greek Philosophy

A Reply to Frank Knight

IN 1965, at a meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society at Stresa, Italy, Professor Frank H. Knight was asked to deliver a paper on Liberal Movements in Socialist Countries. It was a strange performance. After a few perfunctory remarks on his assigned subject, he scoffed at the Hebrew Prophets, accused Jesus Christ of preaching doctrines evil as well as absurd, denounced major absurdities of propagandists for freedom, especially those of Adam Smith, rebuked some of his fellow members of the Mont Pelerin Society, including F. A. Hayek and Ludwig von Mises, as essentially anarchistic or individualistic, and ended by calling me, on the evidence of my Foundations of Morality (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand, 1964), the latest and worst anarchist and oversimplified of them all. In the April, 1966, issue of Ethics, Knight resumed the attack in a fifteen-page article devoted exclusively to my book and the issues raised by it. I am flattered and honored by all this attention from so eminent a writer in so distinguished a journal, but I am also baffled by it. What could I have said that was so extraordinary as to touch off such an extraordinary response? I confess I have difficulty in learning from Knight's article exactly what I have been guilty of. To say that he misrepresents my views is putting it mildly. I simply cannot recognize as my own most of the opinions he attributes to me. In many cases I hold exactly the opposite opinion. Knight constantly accuses me of believing what I do not believe and of saying what I did not say. He constantly accuses me of not saying what I explicitly did say. There are so many instances of both sets of charges that if I tried to consider them all this discussion would run at least as long as his own. I must content myself with a few samples. Let me begin by answering some of Knight's charges concerning what I allegedly do not say: Hazlitt's ethic is individualistic to an extreme; he never mentions even the I repeatedly mention the family. Marriage and the family are, among other things, a form not only of biological but of economic cooperation, etc. (p. 42). The appropriate moral attitude . . . is neither pure egoism nor pure altruism but mutualism, consideration for others and for oneself, and often the failure to make any distinction between one's own interests and the interests of his family or loved ones, or of some particular group of which he feels himself to be an integral part (p. 356). Hazlitt's treatise . . nowhere recognizes the responsibility of anyone for anyone else. (This charge is repeated twice.) As the heart of my book is the chapter Social Cooperation, and as (p. 359) I even suggest that the most appropriate name for the system of ethics I propose would be either Co-operatism or Mutualism, I find this charge simply incredible. More specifically, I write: Of the three people who came upon the man who went down from Jerusalem to Jerico, and fell among thieves, the two who passed by on the other side were ignoring the plainest duty of compassion, and only the good Samaritan was acting morally (p. 190). This is followed by a three-page section specifically on responsibility, in which I write:

Parent Discipline and the Child's Consideration for Others

Parent Discipline and the Child's Consideration for Others

Parent discipline and the child's consideration for others.

Most research on the parental antecedents of moral development has been inspired by psychoanalytic theory, which stresses the importance of repression in the internalization of moral standards. It is perhaps for this reason that the research has focused mainly on prohibitions (e.g., cheating, aggression, disobedience, lying), and the aspects of prohibitions studied have usually been resistance to temptation (I, 4, 5, 13, I6) and guilt reactions following transgression (1, 3, 6, 15). The findings in these studies have been reviewed in detail elsewhere (io). The present paper takes a different point of departure and deals with the antecedents of a positive norm: consideration for others.

The concept of the psychopath.

In their evidence to the recent Royal Commission on the Law Relating to Mental Illness and Mental Deficiency the R.M.P.A. stated the problem of the psychopath in terms of delinquent or otherwise anti-social behaviour. After eliminating cases where such behaviour resulted from well-recognized forms of mental illness or defect, from psychoneurosis or organic disease or injury, their Memorandum went on to say that there remained a group of patients “whose daily behaviour shows a want of social responsibility and of consideration for others, of prudence and foresight and of ability to act in their own best interests. Their persistent anti-social mode of conduct may include inefficiency and lack of interest in any form of occupation; pathological lying, swindling and slandering; alcoholism and drug addiction, sexual offences, and violent actions with little motivation and an entire absence of self-restraint, which may go as far as homicide. Punishment, or the threat of punishment, influences their behaviour only momentarily and its more lasting effect is to intensify their vindictiveness and anti-social attitude.”

THE BUSINESS IN‐BASKET TEST

ABSTRACTAn In‐Basket Test is a device for learning about an individual's ability to perform certain management tasks. In the In‐Basket Test the person taking the test is confronted with a miniature sample of the job in the form of the contents of a manager's “in‐basket” – i.e., his incoming mail. These documents, including notes, letters, reports, papers for signature, memoranda, etc., are to be handled as they would be handled on the job, with the additional requirement that all actions, plans, decisions, agenda for meetings, etc., must be put in writing. These written records of the person's administrative behavior are then scored or evaluated to yield measures of performance.Form I of the Business In‐Basket Test was developed by Educational Testing Service, in cooperation with American Telephone and Telegraph Company for use by affiliated operating companies in a middle‐management training program as a basis for group discussions. The instructions and background materials in the test describe the position of a District Manager in charge of equipment installation and maintenance in a particular district of a large city. The contents of the in‐basket include 25 separate items, many of them several pages long, which present a wide range of problems varying greatly in importance, immediacy, and content, each of which actually had come to a District Manager in one of the Bell System companies at some time in the recent past.Research personnel recorded several group discussions of experienced executives in various operating companies of the Bell System who had completed the In‐Basket Test individually before the discussion period. From a content analysis of these discussions were derived a set of 11 scoring categories, each with a number of Bubtypes by which it was believed the responses of managers to the In‐Basket Test items could be described in a meaningful way. These inclUded such things as Activity Level, Type of Analysis reflected in the responses, Delegation, Consideration of Others, Decisiveness of Action, and the like. Comments of these and other executives who have taken the Business In‐Basket Teat have indicated that the task it presents is realistic and that managers feel personally involved in finding solutions to the problems raised by many of the itemsAfter the scoring procedure had been developed through an examination of the responses of a number of groups of experienced executives and through the study of recordings of their group discussions, Form I of the Business In‐Basket Test was administered to 50 middle‐management executives and 50 management trainees in three of the operating companies of the Bell System. Their responses were then classified into 41 subtypes of the 11 scoring categories which had been developed. The number of actions classified under each subtype constitute the scores each of these men achieved on this form of the In‐Basket Test.Analyses of the scores of these 100 individuals support the following conclusions: Responses of managers to items in Form I of the Business In‐Basket can be scored reliably by well‐trained scorers. (Inter‐scorer reliability estimates are .80 or better for 26 out of 41 scores.) Many types of response made by managers to In‐Basket Test items are consistent across items. (odd‐even reliability estimates are .80 or better for 24 out of 41 scores.) Comparisons of the scores of middle‐management executives and management trainees revealed significant differences in a number of types of response to In‐Basket Test items. Trainees, for example, are more wordy than the experienced managers. They are less likely to take action on the basis of the importance of problems posed by the items and they see fewer implications for the organization as a whole in the various items in the test. Somewhat surprisingly, trainees more often make final decisions and take final action on items, while experienced executives seek additional information or see preliminary steps to be taken before final action can be accomplished. Both groups delegated tasks to subordinates to about the same extent, but the delegations of trainees tended to be complete while those of experienced executives contained some element of control in the form of procedures for making sure that the problem would be properly handled. Finally, the experienced executives more often went out of their way to be considerate both in special acts of consideration and in routine expressions of courtesy.These results suggest that the Business In‐Basket Test should have value as a direct measure of administrative skill for use either in management selection or for the evaluation of management training in business.

Scattering of 190-Mev Deuterons on Protons

A measurement of the total $d\ensuremath{-}p$ scattering cross section is reported. Because of the divergence of Coulomb scattering at small angles, a small angle cutoff has been applied to the elastic scattering. The result may be stated as follows: The cross section for elastic scattering to angles greater than 10 degrees in the c.m. system, plus the total inelastic scattering cross section, is (${94}_{\ensuremath{-}5}^{+7}$)\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}${10}^{\ensuremath{-}27}$ ${\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$.Measurements are also reported of those inelastic scattering processes in which both protons suffer significant momentum changes. We have termed these events "inelastic $p\ensuremath{-}p$ type collisions." The differential cross sections for these events appear to be smaller than would be expected in view of the theoretical considerations of others.

THE ACCIDENT-PRONE AUTOMOBILE DRIVER

In this study the existence of accidentprone drivers has been demonstrated in the records of accidents from a bus company extending over a period of 6 years. The frequency of appearance of the same individual in the high accident group in multiple years has been noted. It has been shown that because of their high accident rate their importance in contributing accidents far exceeds their numbers. In other words, a few drivers account for a disproportionate number of accidents year after year. A group of high and low accident drivers in a taxi firm have been interviewed and the differences in the personality and background of the 2 groups have been noted. It has been demonstrated that the high accident taxi driver most frequently comes from a home marked by parental divorce and instability. During childhood his life is marked by evidence of instability and disrespect for organized authority. As a result he has often encountered difficulty with the school authority and frequently has been before the Juvenile...

Prins Eugen, muralmålare

Summary The author points out The Prince's position as a leader in matters of culture, a leader, whose innate authorilativeness was coupled with the most sensitive consideration for others. He was conscious of his excellent capacity for discrimination but also of his limitations. His position in the Swedish world of culture can be described as that of a constitutional Prince of culture. As an artist he made his own choice, favouring monumental art in which he developed a personal style of considerable material firmness combined 0077ith spiritual and dramatic expression. As early as about 1900 he painted his two landscapes in one of Stockholm's High Schools, Norra Latin. He decorated two of the walls himself and was maecenas for Bruno Liljefors’ work on a third wall, while Carl Larsson painted a fourth. The author suggests that the successfully begun murals in the school's two cortiles surrounded by columns and with overhead lighting, should be completed as he con‐siders this would be a fitting tribute to ...

Educating the teacher for the progressive public school

The progressive school is child-centered. It recognizes that learning takes place largely through experiencing; therefore, it provides many opportunities for children to enjoy rich and varied experiences of a wholesome character. In its program, there is a place for both work and play, and the dignity of the former is as highly valued as the joy of the latter. Pupilinitiative is always encouraged, and a premium is placed on creative ability. In this school, there is a balance between freedom and restraint that contributes to the building up in children of habits, attitudes, and ideals of citizenship which enables them to live orderly in a democratic society in peace and harmony with their neighbors. The progressive school emphasizes activity on the part of its pupils. The work of the classroom is the orderly arrangement of the activities in which children are interested. From the manifold interests of children, the teacher selects such activities as the experiences of adults have revealed are of an educative value and worthy of the time of the children during school hours. The progressive school feels its obligation to contribute to the happiness of boys and girls. Its program is so organized that children have many delightful hours doing the things which the environment of the school suggests. It initiates children into the world of beauty. Music, art, nature, and poetry are fields into which they may journey on adventures that will, if properly guided, add to the happiness of boys and girls. The progressive school recognizes that health is a by-product of good habits of correct living and it attempts to inculcate in children these health habits. It is interested in instructing children in citizenship. This involves character education for the good citizen must be an individual of sterling character. This school is conscious that citizenship expresses itself in terms of life and can be acquired only by living through experiences and forming right habits, attitudes, and sentiments while in the plastic state. Tolerance, open-mindedness, good will, and kindly consideration for others are virtues acquired early in life. Children are taught in the progressive

The Useful Trees of Northern Nigeria

MR. LELY has rendered a service to African forestry by the preparation and publication of his descriptive account of 128 of the useful trees of Northern Nigeria. This book will be helpful not only to his colleagues but also to forest officers in other African colonies, to which many of the trees described extend their range. The author's method may be commended to the consideration of others who, we hope, will follow his example o as he expresses it, his aim has been to describe and illustrate the material as it appears to be and not only as it actually is from the scientific point of view, avoiding botanical terms except where they have no alternative. Technical descriptions can always be provided by the compiler of a flora, working at home, but information such as that supplied by the author of the work under review can only be given by ‘the man in the field.’ The Useful Trees of Northern Nigeria. By H. V. Lely. Pp. xii + 128 + 120 plates. (London: The Crown Agents for the Colonies, 1925.) 10s. net.

On the Cretaceous Rocks of Beer Head and the adjacent Cliff-sections, and on the Relative Horizons therein of the Warminster and Blackdown Fossiliferous Deposits

The Cretacous rocks which capt the higher ground over a considerable portion of the south-east of Devonshire, and from the partial destruction of which vast beds of gravel have accumulated over the same area, are exposed on the coast-line between Seaton and the west of Sidmouth in numerous fine cliff-sections. The strata thus exposed, while resembling in great measure the various corresponding deposits of other parts of England, possess at the same time a certain facies of their own which renders their correlation in part a matter of uncertainty. I purpose to offer in this paper a description of certain of these cliff-sections, to point out the various petrological and palæontological subdivisions of the strata therein exposed, and to leave to the consideration of others the chief point of interest which I have been as yet unable to determine, namely the age of the lowermost deposit. This paper probably contains little which is not already to be found in the writings of previous observers. But so far as it is the result of independent observation, it may not be without its value. Reference to Previous Descriptions. The following papers, to some of which I shall have occasion to refer, are amongst the principal contributions to the literature of the subject: De La Beche, Sir H. T. (1822). “Remarks on the Geology of the South Coast of England,”, &c. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 40 & 95. De La Beche, Sir H. T. (1826). “On the Chalk and

II. Experimental researches in magnetism and electricity. —Part I

This paper is divided into two sections,—the first being on some new and paradoxical phenomena in electro-magnetic induction, and its relation to the principle of the conservation of physical force; the second on a new and powerful generator of dynamic electricity. The author defines the principle of the conservation of force to be the definite quantitative relation existing between all phenomena whatsoever; and in the particular application of the principle to the advancement of physical science and the mechanical arts, certain problems are pointed out which, in their solution, bring out results as surprising as they are paradoxical. Although, when rightly interpreted, the results obtained are in strict accordance with the principle of conservation, yet they are, at tho same time, contrary to the inferences which are generally drawn from analogical reasonings, and to some of those maxims which philosophers propound for the consideration of others.

The application of a method of differences to the species of series whose sums are obtained by Mr. Landen , by the help of impossible quantities

The nature of this paper is such, as renders it absolutely incapable of abridgement. By way of introduction to it the author observes, that having some years back, when reading the learned Mr. Landen’s fifth memoir, discovered the manner of applying a method of differences to the species of series whose sums are there obtained by the help of impossible quantities, and having since extended that application, he now ventures to offer it to the consideration of others. The practice of this method, in most cases, appears, he says, extremely simple, and on that account he is almost induced to imagine that it has already been considered by mathematicians. And he acknowledges that, since the greatest part of the paper was written, he has, in Euler’s Institutiones Calculi Integrals, met with two simple series, which are in that work summed by multiplications similar to those employed in the investigation of the principal theorems contained in this paper. But whether that learned mathematician has pursued the method any further, he has not been able to ascertain.

VII. The application of a method of differences to the species of series whose sums are obtained by Mr. Landen, by the Help of impossible quantities

Having some years back, when reading the learned Mr. Landen's fifth Memoir, discovered the manner of applying a method of differences, to the species of series, whose sums are there obtained by the help of impossible quantities, and having since extended that application, I now venture to offer it to the consideration of others. The practice of this method, in most cases, appears to me extremely simple; and on that account, I am almost induced to imagine, that they have already been considered by mathe­maticians; indeed since the greatest part of this Paper was written, I met with Euler's Institutiones Calculi integralis ; two simple series are in that work summed by multiplications similar to those employed in the investigation of the principal theorems contained in this Paper; but whether that learned mathematician has farther pursued the method, in that or in any other work, I have not as yet been able to ascertain.