Considerable Economic Potential Research Articles

Optimizing Manufacturing and Osseointegration of Ti6Al4V Implants through Precision Casting and Calcium and Phosphorus Ion Implantation? In Vivo Results of a Large-Scale Animal Trial.

Background: Uncemented implants are still associated with several major challenges, especially with regard to their manufacturing and their osseointegration. In this study, a novel manufacturing technique—an optimized form of precision casting—and a novel surface modification to promote osseointegration—calcium and phosphorus ion implantation into the implant surface—were tested in vivo. Methods: Cylindrical Ti6Al4V implants were inserted bilaterally into the tibia of 110 rats. We compared two generations of cast Ti6Al4V implants (CAST 1st GEN, n = 22, and CAST 2nd GEN, n = 22) as well as cast 2nd GEN Ti6Al4V implants with calcium (CAST + CA, n = 22) and phosphorus (CAST + P, n = 22) ion implantation to standard machined Ti6Al4V implants (control, n = 22). After 4 and 12 weeks, maximal pull-out force and bone-to-implant contact rate (BIC) were measured and compared between all five groups. Results: There was no significant difference between all five groups after 4 weeks or 12 weeks with regard to pull-out force (p > 0.05, Kruskal Wallis test). Histomorphometric analysis showed no significant difference of BIC after 4 weeks (p > 0.05, Kruskal–Wallis test), whereas there was a trend towards a higher BIC in the CAST + P group (54.8% ± 15.2%), especially compared to the control group (38.6% ± 12.8%) after 12 weeks (p = 0.053, Kruskal–Wallis test). Conclusion: In this study, we found no indication of inferiority of Ti6Al4V implants cast with the optimized centrifugal precision casting technique of the second generation compared to standard Ti6Al4V implants. As the employed manufacturing process holds considerable economic potential, mainly due to a significantly decreased material demand per implant by casting near net-shape instead of milling away most of the starting ingot, its application in manufacturing uncemented implants seems promising. However, no significant advantages of calcium or phosphorus ion implantation could be observed in this study. Due to the promising results of ion implantation in previous in vitro and in vivo studies, further in vivo studies with different ion implantation conditions should be considered.

Economic potential of Ukraine and ways of its implementation

The article explores the conceptual basis of ways to realize Ukraine's economic potential in the face of globalization. The main advantages and disadvantages of the current state of Ukraine's national economy have been identified. The main ways of optimizing the fiscal and monetary policy of the state are presented. The concept of digitalization of the national economy of Ukraine as the main factor of realizing economic potential in its most promising industries: agro-industry, energy industry, logistics has been proposed. The main goals of the introduction of the economic education system in Ukraine are presented. The subject is relevant because the national economy of Ukraine today is characterized by a low level of development compared with developed countries of the world, but has considerable untapped economic potential, which is caused by with a number of absolute and relative competitive advantages. The lack of unified doctrine for the implementation of economic potential in the most promising sectors of the national economy of Ukraine is the main unsolved problem of scientists. Generally economic potential is available resources that can be used further in order to achieve a positive economic effect. Thus, the concept of economic potential of the national economy provides for effective use of existing resources in the country, based on the principles of absolute and relative competitive advantages, in order to achieve economic growth and Economic development. The ultimate long-term goal of implementing country's economic potential from a macroeconomic point of view is to increase GDP to a potential level. The implementation of Ukraine's economic potential should be carried out by: reforming the state's monetary and fiscal policy; Digitalization of the national economy, first of all, in the most promising areas such as agro-industry, energy industry and logistics; the introduction of a system of economic education of the population. Innovative development is the main method of realizing economic potential in all promising spheres of national economy of Ukraine. Active implementation of innovations in various sectors involves digitalization economy.

Facts of Packaging Materials and Storage Environment on Post Harvest Quality of Papaya (Carica Papaya L.)

Papaya is a fruit with considerable economic potential in the tropics as there are domestic markets in producing tropical countries and export markets in the sub-tropical and temperate countries In Ethiopia, large quantity of papaya is wasted before it reach the target markets. Because papaya is naturally sensitive to postharvest injuries and mechanical damages due to its thin skin and climacteric type ripening nature. The use of modified atmosphere in combination with cool storage can successfully extend the storage life of papaya fruit. The high density polyethylene packaged fruits characterized by lower weight loss at ambient and evaporative cooler storage compared to the loss in non-packaged fruits stored at ambient condition, low density polyethylene bags maintained better weight compared to newspaper and banana leaf packaging materials. Packaged fruits had more number of marketable fruits than the non-packaged under both ambient and evaporative cooler conditions. The packaging materials of high density polyethylene bags and Low density polyethylene combined with evaporative cool storages have significant effect on maintain shelf life and postharvest quality of papaya compared with banana and news paper packaging materials. But the banana leaves and news paper packaging materials combined with evaporative cool storages also has good effect on maintaining shelf life and postharvest quality of papaya as compared with other packaging materials. DOI : 10.7176/JBAH/10-1-03 Publication date: January 31 st 2020

Phenolic Profile of Grape Canes: Novel Compounds Identified by LC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS.

Grape canes (Vitis vinifera L.) are a viticulture industry by-product with an important content of secondary metabolites, mainly polyphenols with a broad spectrum of demonstrated health benefits. Grape canes, therefore, have considerable economic potential as a source of high-value phytochemicals. In this work, liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization hybrid linear trap quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometry (LC–LTQ-Orbitrap) was used for the comprehensive identification of polyphenolic compounds in grape canes. Identification of polyphenols was performed by comparing their retention times, accurate mass measured, and mass fragmentation patterns with those of reference substances or available data in the literature. A total of 75 compounds were identified, including phenolic acids, flavanols, flavonols, flavanonols, flavanones, and stilbenoids. The most abundant polyphenols were proanthocyanidins and stilbenoids and their oligomers. Moreover, the high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis revealed the occurrence of 17 polyphenols never described before in grape canes, thereby providing a more complete polyphenolic profile of this potentially valuable by-product.

The economic potential of agroecology: Empirical evidence from Europe

This article discusses the economic dimensions of agroecological farming systems in Europe. It firstly theoretically elaborates the reasons why, and under what conditions, agroecological farming systems have the potential to produce higher incomes than farms that follow the conventional logic. This theoretical exposition is then followed by a presentation of empirical material from a wide range of European countries that shows the extent to which this potential is being realized. The empirical data draw upon different styles of farming that can be described as ‘proto-agroecological’: approaches to farming that are agroecological by nature, but which may not necessarily explicitly define themselves as agroecological. The empirical material that we present shows the huge potential and radical opportunities that Europe's, often silent, ‘agroecological turn’ offers to farmers that could (and should) be the basis for the future transformation of European agricultural policies, since agroecology not only allows for more sustainable production of healthier food but also considerably improves farmers' incomes. It equally carries the promise of re-enlarging productive agricultural (and related) employment and increasing the total income generated by the agricultural sector, at both regional and national levels. While we recognise that agroecology is a worldwide and multidimensional phenomenon we have chosen to limit this analysis to Europe and the economic dimension. This choice is made in order to refute current discourses that represent agroecology as unproductive and unprofitable and an option that would require massive subsidies. • Throughout Europe a range of proto-agroecological practices can be identified. . • Agroecology carries considerable economic potential: it sustains employment levels and increases incomers. . • The VA/GVP ratio helps to explain the strength of agroecological farming. • Agroecological farming is key to the much needed transformation of European agriculture.

NILAI EKONOMI NIRA SAWIT SEBAGAI POTENSI PEMBIAYAAN PEREMAJAAN KEBUN KELAPA SAWIT RAKYAT

Sebagian besar dari perkebunan kelapa sawit rakyat saat ini telah memerlukan peremajaan. Namun banyak pekebun rakyat mengalami kesulitan, terutama karena besarnya biaya yang dibutuhkan dan hilangnya pendapatan selama masa tanaman belum menghasilkan. Batang sawit yang ditumbangkan pada saat peremajaan memiliki potensi nilai ekonomi sehingga dapat dijadikan sebagai alternatif sumber pendapatan selama tanaman belum menghasilkan. Untuk menganalisis hal tersebut penelitian ini dilakukan di Desa Lau Tador Kecamatan Sei Suka Kabupaten Batu Bara Sumatera Utara. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah on farm participatory research survey dan focus group discussion serta dilakukan analisis usaha gula merah sawit. Penelitian menunjukkan nilai ekonomi batang sawit yang belum diolah adalah sebesar Rp. 15.813. atau sebesar Rp. 1.897.500 per ha, sedangkan yang sudah diolah menjadi gula sawit memiliki potensi pendapatan bersih per ha nya sebesar Rp. 18.421.500 sampai dengan Rp. 22.866.325. Potensi ini dapat membantu biaya hidup petani dan biaya perawatan selama sawit masih dalam masa belum menghasilkan. Untuk mengoptimalkan potensi ekonomi produksi gula merah sawit dilakukan dengan skala luas melalui pembentukan kelompok tani ataupun koperasi. Melalui koperasi akan dikelola secara terorganisir baik pendanaan, teknis, produksi, maupun pemasaran. Pemanfaatan nira sawit ini dapat dijadikan salah satu kegiatan dalam program peremajaan sawit rakyat (PSR) yang menjadi program utama pemerintah.

Impact of the Mode of Extraction on the Lipidomic Profile of Oils Obtained from Selected Amazonian Fruits.

Oils and fats are important raw materials in food products, animal feed, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals among others. The market today is dominated by oils derive, d from African palm, soybean, oilseed and animal fats. Colombia’s Amazon region has endemic palms such as Euterpe precatoria (açai), Oenocarpus bataua (patawa), and Mauritia flexuosa (buriti) which grow in abundance and produce a large amount of ethereal extract. However, as these oils have never been used for any economic purpose, little is known about their chemical composition or their potential as natural ingredients for the cosmetics or food industries. In order to fill this gap, we decided to characterize the lipids present in the fruits of these palms. We began by extracting the oils using mechanical and solvent-based approaches. The oils were evaluated by quantifying the quality indices and their lipidomic profiles. The main components of these profiles were triglycerides, followed by diglycerides, fatty acids, acylcarnitine, ceramides, ergosterol, lysophosphatidylcholine, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and sphingolipids. The results suggest that solvent extraction helped increase the diglyceride concentration in the three analyzed fruits. Unsaturated lipids were predominant in all three fruits and triolein was the most abundant compound. Characterization of the oils provides important insights into the way they might behave as potential ingredients of a range of products. The sustainable use of these oils may have considerable economic potential.

High frequency plant regeneration from leaf culture of Neolamarckia cadamba.

Neolamarckia cadamba is a miracle tree species with considerable economic potential uses as a timber wood, woody forage and traditional medicine resource. The present study aimed to establish a highly efficient and robust protocol of plant regeneration for N. cadamba. Greenish callus was induced from very young leaf explants of sterile in vitro plantlets cultured on Murashige and Skoog's (MS) medium supplemented with 3 mg l-1 thidiazuron (TDZ), 0.1 mg l-1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 0.05 mg l-1 α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). The callus could differentiate into nodular embryogenic structures or adventitious shoots, and these two regeneration pathways often occurred in the same callus clumps. The micro-shoots developed roots in MS supplemented with 0.05 mg l-1 NAA and 0.05 mg l-1 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), while the nodular embryogenic structures germinated directly and developed into plantlets on induction medium contained with 0.5 mg l-1 (or 1 mg l-1) 6-benzyladenine (6-BA) and 0.05 mg l-1 NAA. The rooted plantlets could be successfully acclimatized to a greenhouse with more than 92.0% survival. This regeneration protocol can be used in large scale cultivation needs and may be useful for future genetic modifications of N. cadamba.

Plant regeneration and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of the miracle tree Neolamarckia cadamba

Neolamarckia cadamba is a miracle tree species with considerable economic potential used as a timber wood, woody forage and traditional medicine resource. The present study aimed to establish an efficient protocol of plant regeneration and Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation for N. cadamba. Greenish callus were induced from different type explants when cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s (MS) medium supplemented with thidiazuron (TDZ) and kinetin (KT). The callus could differentiate into somatic embryos or adventitious shoots, and these two regeneration pathways often occurred in the same callus clumps. It was found that MS medium supplemented with 2 mg/L TDZ, 0.2 mg/L KT provided the most suitable medium for leaf explants to induce adventitious shoot, delivering a maximum regeneration frequency with a mean of 8.2 shoots per explant. The micro-shoots developed roots in MS supplemented with 0.05 mg/L α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), and could be successfully acclimatized to a greenhouse with more than 90% survival. Based on this regeneration protocol, an Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic transformation system was successfully developed for N. cadamba. Genetic transformation was obtained through the infection of leaf with A. tumefaciens strain GV3101 harboring a modified binary vector pCAMBIA1305 containing the marker genes β-glucuronidase (GUS) and fluorescent protein YFP. The presence of GUS in transformed plants was confirmed using PCR and histological stain, while the expression of YFP was confirmed through fluorescent microscopy and RT-PCR. Out of 276 putative transformants, 15 plants were found to be positive transgenic. Nevertheless, by adopting this protocol, positive transformed plants could be obtained within three months.

Analysis of Transportation Development for Small Islands in Sumenep District, East Java Province

This study aims to describe the economic potential of islands in Sumenep District. This study uses a qualitative descriptive approach, carried out by collecting data through observation, in-depth interviews, and data tracking. Sumenep District has the largest number of islands in East Java, 287 islands, spread across nine subdistricts. These islands have considerable economic potential, from oil and gas to fisheries, epinephelinae, cromileptes altivelis, and lobster. This area has a great need for the existence of a transportation network as a means of economic mobility of the community, which also affects the price of basic necessities far higher than the area of Sumenep Regency on the mainland, Madura Island and Java Island.

The complete chloroplast genome of the miracle tree Neolamarckia cadamba and its comparison in Rubiaceae family

Neolamarckia cadamba is a miracle tree species with considerable economic potential used as a timber wood and traditional medicine resource in South and Southeast Asia. To better understand the molecular basis of its chloroplast biology, we sequenced and characterised the complete chloroplast genome using Illumina pair-end sequencing. The analysis showed a chloroplast genome size of 154,999 bp in length, harbouring a pair of inverted repeats (IRs) of 25,634 bp separated by a large single copy (LSC) sequence of 85,880 bp and a small single copy (SSC) sequence of 17,851 bp. Of the 130 genes present, 96 were unique and 17 were duplicated in the IRs. The coding regions comprised 79 protein genes, 30 tRNA genes and 4 rRNA genes. In the protein-coding genes, nine genes contained one intron each, while another two genes comprised two introns. The overall GC content of the chloroplast genome was 37.6%. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) analysis revealed that most SSRs were A/T-rich, which contributed to the overall AT richness of the N. cadamba chloroplast genome. Additionally, fewer SSRs distributed in the protein-coding sequences compared to the non-coding regions, indicating an uneven distribution of SSRs within the chloroplast genome. A maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis showed that N. cadamba was closely related to Morinda officinalis and Emmenopterys henryi, which belong to the Rubiaceae family. This complete chloroplast genome will offer valuable information for the development of highly variable DNA markers for future conservation, genetic engineering studies and variety selection of this miracle tree.

JcZFP8, a C2H2 zinc finger protein gene from Jatropha curcas, influences plant development in transgenic tobacco

Background: Jatropha curcas L., as an important strategic biofuel resource with considerable economic potential, has attracted worldwide attention. However, J. curcas has yet to be domesticated. Plant height, an important agronomic trait of J. curcas, has not been sufficiently improved, and the genetic regulation of this trait in J. curcas is not fully understood. Zinc finger proteins (ZFPs), a class of transcription factors, have previously been shown to play critical roles in regulating multiple aspects of plant growth and development and may accordingly be implicated in the genetic regulation of plant height in J. curcas. Results: In this study, we cloned JcZFP8, a C2H2 ZFP gene in J. curcas. We found that the JcZFP8 protein was localized in the nucleus and contained a conserved QALGGH motif in its C2H2 structure. Furthermore, ectopic expression of JcZFP8 under the control of the 35S promoter in transgenic tobacco resulted in dwarf plants with malformed leaves. However, when JcZFP8 was knocked out, the transgenic tobacco did not show the dwarf phenotype. After treatment with the gibberellic acid (GA) biosynthesis inhibitor paclobutrazol (PAC), the dwarf phenotype was more severe than plants that did not receive the PAC treatment, whereas application of exogenous gibberellin3 (GA3) reduced the dwarf phenotype in transgenic plants. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that JcZFP8 may play a role in J. curcas plant phenotype through GA-related pathways. Our findings may help us to understand the genetic regulation of plant development in J. curcas and to accelerate breeding progress through engineering of the GA metabolic pathway in this plant.

Wastewater treatment potential of Moringa stenopetala over Moringa olifera as a natural coagulant, antimicrobial agent and heavy metal removals

Moringa is a multipurpose tree with considerable economic and social potential and its cultivation is currently being actively promoted in many developing countries. Seeds of this tropical tree con...

Determination of the chromosome number and genome size ofGarcinia mangostanaL. via cytogenetics, flow cytometry and k-mer analyses

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is one of the most popular tropical fruit of South-East Asia. It has considerable economic potential for local and export markets. This paper describes a researc...

Techno-Economic Evaluation of Regulation Service from SEVs in Smart MG System

A techno-economic evaluation of regulation service of microgrid system comprising renewable energy resources and electric vehicles has been done in this paper. EV operational strategy for MG regulation is developed by incorporating a vehicle controller which enables vehicle to grid or grid to vehicle mode operation, while plugged into the power distribution circuit. The functionality of grid integration of electric vehicle with vehicle to grid or grid to vehicle operation makes it a smart electric vehicle, suitable for operation in smart microgrid environment. The techno-economic analysis is based on simulation results obtained from a microgrid test system operated with varying power generation and frequency regulation being provided by two different microgrid resources i.e., conventional battery storage system and proposed smart electric vehicles. The cost for providing frequency regulation using battery storage system and grid integration of vehicle is calculated and compared to find microgrid optimal operation option. The comparison of two costs reveals that smart electric vehicles have considerable economic potential for microgrid regulation service and hence provide better utilization of resources for optimal operation.

English

Jatropha curcas L. is peculiar treasured tree species for its uses and considerable economic potential as a biofuel plant. Propagation using seeds is limited by low viability and germination hence unable to provide high quality planting material for sustainable use. To achieve mass production of J. curcas, regeneration from leaf discs and petioles using different treatments of plant growth regulators (PGRs) including 6- benzyl aminopurine (BAP), Kinetin (KIN), Indole -3-acetic acid (IAA) and Thiadiazuron (TDZ) was explored. Maximum callus formation efficiency (85.00%) and the shoot proliferation per explants (8.25) was observed on MS medium supplemented with 1.5 mg/L BAP, 0.6 mg/L KIN, 0.3 mg/L IAA and 0.1 mg/L TDZ. Rooting was induced from elongated shoots cultured on half strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium fortified with different regimes of indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). MS supplemented with 3.5 mg/L IBA and 3.5 mg/L NAA gave optimum root formation of 2.5 cm on JCO4, JN1, JE4 and JRV1 accessions. The rooted plants were established in forest soil, sand and manure mixed in the ratio of 2: 1:1 in the green house with 20% survival rate. This successful in vitro regeneration is vital for seedling system for mass production. Key words: Plant growth regulators, callus, shoot induction, root formation.

Evaluation of Limiting Climatic Factors and Simulation of a Climatically Suitable Habitat for Chinese Sea Buckthorn.

Chinese sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. sinensis) has considerable economic potential and plays an important role in reclamation and soil and water conservation. For scientific cultivation of this species across China, we identified the key climatic factors and explored climatically suitable habitat in order to maximize survival of Chinese sea buckthorn using MaxEnt and GIS tools, based on 98 occurrence records from herbarium and publications and 13 climatic factors from Bioclim, Holdridge life zone and Kria' index variables. Our simulation showed that the MaxEnt model performance was significantly better than random, with an average test AUC value of 0.93 with 10-fold cross validation. A jackknife test and the regularized gain change, which were applied to the training algorithm, showed that precipitation of the driest month (PDM), annual precipitation (AP), coldness index (CI) and annual range of temperature (ART) were the most influential climatic factors in limiting the distribution of Chinese sea buckthorn, which explained 70.1% of the variation. The predicted map showed that the core of climatically suitable habitat was distributed from the southwest to northwest of Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi and Shanxi provinces, where the most influential climate variables were PDM of 1.0–7.0 mm, AP of 344.0–1089.0 mm, CI of -47.7–0.0°C, and ART of 26.1–45.0°C. We conclude that the distribution patterns of Chinese sea buckthorn are related to the northwest winter monsoon, the southwest summer monsoon and the southeast summer monsoon systems in China.

Food Wasting on Consumption Level: Analysis of the Situation in Latvia Compared to Global Tendencies

Reducing food waste at all stages of the food value chain holds out considerable social, environmental and economic potential. With the global population estimated to reach 9.5 billion by 2075, mankind needs to ensure it has the food resources available to feed all these people. With current practices wasting up to 50 % of all food produced, it is important to promote sustainable ways to reduce waste. But to do so, it is important to understand the current situation regarding the food waste amounts. The aim of this article is to compare the situation regarding food waste in Latvia and food waste in foreign countries, as well as to identify factors that influence food wasting behaviour. The results are based on the research of theoretical guidelines, foreign research results and on the pilot research conducted in Latvia by the authors of the article in 2013, in which 610 respondents participated. The results of the pilot research show that the situation in Latvia is very similar to the situation globally.

Histología de la regeneración por organogénesis en Paulownia tomentosa (Paulowniaceae)

Paulownia tomentosa is a fast-growing tree species with a considerable economic potential because of its value for wood as well as its high biomass production, and elevated stress tolerance. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the development of adventitious buds in leaves obtained from four-week-old shoots of P. tomentosa, in order to identify the cells involved in in vitro adventitious bud development. Leaves (proximal halves with the petiole) from the first node were excised from four-week-old micropropagated shoots, and cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium, supplemented with 3% (w/v) sucrose, 0.6% (w/v) Sigma agar, 22.7 microM thidiazuron (TDZ) and 2.9 microM indole-3-acetic acid for two weeks, explants were then transferred to the same medium with 0.44 microM N6-benzyladenine for another four weeks. Five explants were collected daily during the two first weeks in TDZ treatment. A total of 140 samples were processed. Most of the buds developed indirectly from the callus formed in the petiole stub, and they became visible after eight-ten days of culture, although some buds were also observed in the area of the laminar cut at the level of the veins. The first histological changes could be observed after two-three days of culture, with the dedifferentiation of some subepidermal and inner parenchyma cells, which exhibited a large, prominent nucleus, densely-stained cytoplasm and a high nucleus-to-cell area ratio. Proliferation of these cells gives rise to meristemoid formation after seven-ten days of culture. Organized cell division in meristemoids allows the formation of bud primordia that emerged from the explants surface. The progressive structural differentiation of the apical meristem, leaf primordia, and procambium strands, led to formation of complete buds that were observed in the exterior of the explants after 10-15 days of culture. Direct development of buds from cells in the subepidermic and/or epidermic layers were observed on the adaxial surface of the petiole. This protocol may be a useful tool for the application of genetic transformation techniques, as it enables to determine specific regions in the foliar explants where the meristemoids formation will take place, and therefore to determine which cells should be the object of genetic transformation.

Water absorption, retention and the swelling characteristics of cassava starch grafted with polyacrylic acid

An important application of starch grafted with copolymers from unsaturated organic acids is the use as water absorbent. Although much research has been published in recent years, the kinetics of water absorption and the swelling behavior of starch based superabsorbents are relatively unexplored. Also, water retention under mechanical strain is usually not reported. Cassava starch was used since it has considerable economic potential in Asia. The gelatinized starch was grafted with acrylic acid and Fenton's initiator and crosslinked with N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAM). Besides a good initial absorption capacity, the product could retain up to 63g H2O/g under severe suction. The material thus combines a good absorption capacity with sufficient gel strength. The mathematical analysis of the absorption kinetics shows that at conditions of practical interest, the rate of water penetration into the gel is determined by polymer chain relaxations and not by osmotic driven diffusion.