Forest Conservation Efforts Research Articles

Forests to buildings: Tree species utilization, technology, scale of production, and local embeddedness

ABSTRACTThe paper presents a study of log home manufacturing. Relationships between log conversion (i.e., processing) methods and manufacturer perspectives on their forest resources were investigated using multinomial logistic regression (MLR) models. Log conversion attributes and production volume were found to predict manufacturers’ timber procurement methods, supply distance, timber performance requirements, influences on log conversion methods, and concern with market barriers to ‘green’ certification. Tree species utilization was a statistically significant independent variable in all of the predictive models. Other log conversion attributes (i.e., corner notch type, log profile, log type) and production volume were statistically significant independent variables in individual models. The results suggest systematic relationships between tree species utilization, processing technology, scale of production, and the local embeddedness of production. Manufacturers are categorized as higher-volume processors of raw logs acquired locally, producing products reflecting traditional regional design, or as lower-volume processors of cants acquired from a greater distance, producing less regionally associated products. The paper concludes by suggesting that specialty forest product manufacturers, processing raw logs, are a bridge between the forest resource and the final product and are, therefore, in a strategic position to impact forest conservation, ecological improvement, and other ecological modernization efforts.

Precipitation Drivers of Cropping Frequency in the Brazilian Cerrado: Evidence and Implications for Decision-Making

Abstract The Amazon basin has been subjected to unprecedented rates of land-use change over the past several decades, primarily as a result of the expansion of agriculture. Enhanced rain forest conservation efforts toward the end of the twentieth century slowed deforestation of the Amazon but, in turn, increased demand for land repurposing in the adjacent Cerrado (savanna) region, where conservation regulations are less strict. To maintain or increase yields while minimizing the need for additional land, agricultural producers adopted a form of intensification in which two rain-fed crops are planted within a single growing season (double cropping). Using 10 years (August 2002 to July 2012) of MODIS and TRMM data, it is demonstrated that there exists a threshold growing season rainfall amount (1759 mm) for double cropping. But more nuanced is the relationship between observable precipitation information available to farmers at the time of planting decision and the choice to “double crop” in a given year. An evaluation of decision-available precipitation characteristics provides strong evidence for the importance of high rainfall frequency during a critical period prior to, and including, the rainy season onset.

WHY LOCAL RESIDENTS HARVEST NATURAL FOREST? DETERMINANTS FACTORS IN THE MOUNTAINS OF KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA

Purpose- - This paper empirically examines households’ forest biomass extraction behavior in three forests areas of Khyber PakhtunKhwa, Pakistan. It further identifies the determinant factors of three types of resources that have implications for forest cover. These include the extraction of fuel wood, cutting of timber and free grazing of goats in the forests. Methodology- - We use primary date collected from 180 households in three forest areas (Miandam, Lalkoo, and Bamburet in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The data was gathered in three Miandam, Lalkoo, and Bamburet using two stage sampling technique. Findings- - The results showed that as insecurity of forest ownerships, family size and age of the households increases, households are more likely to opt for fuel wood harvesting from the forests. On the contrary, as education of the household head, no of crops grown in a season distance to market, use of substitute fuel, and plantation on private land outside forest and livestock assets increases, households are less likely to harvest fuel wood from the natural forests. We also find that there cross regional variation in tendency to harvest fuel wood from the forests. The results also reveal that, households tendency to graze in the forest decreases as households’ off-farm income share increases in total households annual income. Practical Implication- - The government forest policy and conservation efforts need to prioritize the provision of alternative fuel sources, community plantation. Policy strategies are needed to regulate free grazing of goats socially in the state owned natural forests in the province. The areas in the periphery of the natural forests should be supplied with sources of energy from substitute sources such as hydroelectric powers, launch community plantation programs vis-à-vis legislate to resolve the issue of dispute of forest ownership to realize the goal of sustainable utilization of forest and socioeconomic development of the mountains regions.

PRIORITY AREAS FOR FOREST CONSERVATION IN AN URBAN LANDSCAPE AT THE TRANSITION BETWEEN ATLANTIC FOREST AND CERRADO

ABSTRACT Urbanization and agriculture growth are some of the major causes of natural ecosystems depletion and biodiversity loss. Conservation efforts can be developed through the prioritization of areas for forest conservation in order to minimize this process. Here, we establish conservation strategies based on a spatial analysis of forest fragments in an urban landscape at the transition between two important Brazilian biodiversity hotspots: Atlantic Forest and Cerrado. A high-resolution mapping of forest patches was used to quantify forest cover and to provide spatial analysis. We developed a Forest Conservation Priority Index (FCPI) derived from landscape metrics to select priority areas for forest conservation efforts. We used area, shape and proximity metrics as landscape structure indicators. Landscape metrics were classified and we attributed a rank and weights for them to calculate the FCPI. Forest covers 17% of the study area. 60% of the forest patches comprise less than one hectare, 95% less than 10 ha and only 1% more than 50 ha. The largest fragments (> 100ha) are all long and narrow. Also, fewer than half the patches are connected to others. Regions classified as high and very high priority for forest conservation are localized at greater slopes, along rivers and on private lands. Our index allowed the prioritization of forest fragments in an urban landscape, directing efforts of conservation. Creating protected areas and restoration plans are necessary for the better situation of the natural ecosystem. Land-use planning must resolve human demands and conservation of this important ecosystem.

Pollination and seed dispersal are the most threatened processes of plant regeneration.

Plant regeneration is essential for maintaining forest biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, which are globally threatened by human disturbance. Here we present the first integrative meta-analysis on how forest disturbance affects multiple ecological processes of plant regeneration including pollination, seed dispersal, seed predation, recruitment and herbivory. We analysed 408 pairwise comparisons of these processes between near-natural and disturbed forests. Human impacts overall reduced plant regeneration. Importantly, only processes early in the regeneration cycle that often depend on plant-animal interactions, i.e. pollination and seed dispersal, were negatively affected. Later processes, i.e. seed predation, recruitment and herbivory, showed overall no significant response to human disturbance. Conserving pollination and seed dispersal, including the animals that provide these services to plants, should become a priority in forest conservation efforts globally.

ANALISIS PENGEMBANGAN USAHA BERBASIS M ANGROVE DI PANTAI DAMAS KABUPATEN TRENGGALEK

Mangrove forests in Damas coastal has many switching function as plantations, causing a reduction in mangrove forest areas. The decline in mangrove forest area as a result of conversion to palm plantation committed by some members of the group LMDH "Agro Lestari". This is due to the assumption of palm trees have economic value that is higher than the mangrove vegetation. Meanwhile, mangrove forest conservation efforts have been carried out by the service related to the bakau ’s management group or Pokmaswas (Community Monitoring Group) called "Anchor Marine". However, the efforts of mangrove reforestation were less successful, due to the conversion of mangrove land for palm plantations is still running. This study evaluates the implementation of awareness activities in the management of mangrove forests and mangrove-based business training activities. Based on the evaluation of activities after the extension, shows that people have a positive behavior and participation of the management of mangrove forests. Based on the evaluation results to the participants counseling and training mangrove processing, respondents are interested in developing mangrove syrop (80%), crackers mangrove (70%) and brownies (60%). Based on the respondent's ability to perform processing as much as 60% of respondents feel they have the ability in processing dodol, and 60% of respondents also feel have the ability in processing syrop mangrove. Based on the analysis of business profitability, the development of products brownies value profitability 47.26%, while the mangrove crackers 43.41% and 46.93% dodol mangrove. While syrop pepada has a profitability of 16.35%. Making api-api brownies, api-api crackers and api-api dodol can be done when the fruit season fires for 4 months.

Exploring the Role of Public–Private Partnerships in Forest Protection

In 2010, the Swedish government established the Komet program—a pilot forest protection project that was initially implemented in five land areas. The Komet program was intended to complement existing formal protection measures by establishing partnerships with forest owners and industries to encourage these actors to take a greater interest in contributing to forest conservation efforts and Nature Conservation Agreements. Despite mixed results, the government subsequently chose to implement these partnerships nationwide, thereby institutionalizing the Komet program and making it into a regular component of forest management policy. This study examines how the program developed and became institutionalized. The theoretical role of public–private partnerships and their capacity to deliver collective goods are discussed. The empirical material primarily consists of interviews with key stakeholders from the pilot period and the present reference group. The results highlight the need to carefully consider past collaborative experiences together with existing motives relating to the role of partnerships in forest protection in order to achieve successful institutionalization. This will increase the government’s capacity to create the conditions for institutionalization and may facilitate the development of external interactions in partnerships, leading to the incorporation of various protection arrangements.

Survey of forest conservation features in Benue state, Nigeria

The survey investigated the forest conservation features in Benue State, Nigeria, to provide baseline information for improved forest conservation efforts in the State. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 10 out of 23 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of the State for the study. Three hundred respondents from 150 households in the 10 LGAs were selected and interviewed using semi-structured questionnaire. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Five forest conservation features (forests, special objects, rivers, hills and shrines/sacred groves) were recognized among the three ethnic groups studied. Twenty (20) conservation features were identified in Tiv land, 19 in Idoma land and 12 in Igede land. Apart from rivers and special objects, no significant differences (p>0.05) were observed in the mean number of respondents that recognized these forest conservation features across the ethnic groups studied. It was recommended that the conservation features in the State should be promoted and developed for more effective conservation of forest resources in Benue State.Keywords: Conservation Features, Multi-stage, Hills, Rivers, Shrines, Sacred Groves

Decreasing Deforestation in the Southern Brazilian Amazon—The Role of Administrative Sanctions in Mato Grosso State

Forest conservation efforts through regulatory enforcement routinely failed to prevent large scale deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. However, a turning point occurred in 2005, when a combination of unfavorable economic conditions and an unprecedented coordinated effort between governmental institutions resulted in a gradual slowdown in deforestation. The continuation of this deforestation slowdown in an environment of economic recovery and expansion after 2009 suggests that regulatory enforcement achieved a measure of success not experienced before. In this study, the impact of fines, embargoes on rural private properties, and confiscation of means of production and produce on deforestation in the Southern Amazon state of Mato Grosso was considered through regression and GIS-based analyses. It was found that while all three sanctions were negatively correlated with deforestation, there were important differences in their level of enforcement. Embargoes were effectively implemented and showed high deforestation deterrence effectiveness, but the actual collection of the values of fines issued was extremely low, which casts doubts on their actual effectiveness as a deforestation deterrence mechanism. The results suggest that while sanctions for illegal deforestation have played an important role in the slowdown in deforestation, measures to increase the collection of fines issued are urgently needed.

Effects of conservation policy on China's forest recovery.

Forest loss is one of the most pervasive land surface transformations on Earth, with drastic effects on global climate, ecosystems, and human well-being. As part of biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation efforts, many countries, including China, have been implementing large-scale policies to conserve and restore forests. However, little is known about the effectiveness of these policies, and information on China's forest dynamics at the national level has mainly relied on official statistics. In response to international calls for improved reliability and transparency of information on biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation efforts, it is crucial to independently verify government statistics. Furthermore, if forest recovery is verified, it is essential to assess the degree to which this recovery is attributable to policy, within the context of other relevant factors. We assess the dynamics of forest cover in China between 2000 and 2010 and evaluate the effectiveness of one of the largest forest conservation programs in the world-the Natural Forest Conservation Program (NFCP). Results indicate that forest cover has significantly increased in around 1.6% of China's territory and that the areas exhibiting forest gain experienced a combined increase in net primary productivity (ca. 0.9 Tg of carbon). Among the variables evaluated at county level, the NFCP exhibited a significantly positive relation with forest gain, whereas reduction in rural labor showed a negative relationship with both forest loss and gain. Findings such as these have global implications for forest conservation and climate change mitigation efforts.

Synthesizing Global and Local Datasets to Estimate Jurisdictional Forest Carbon Fluxes in Berau, Indonesia.

BackgroundForest conservation efforts are increasingly being implemented at the scale of sub-national jurisdictions in order to mitigate global climate change and provide other ecosystem services. We see an urgent need for robust estimates of historic forest carbon emissions at this scale, as the basis for credible measures of climate and other benefits achieved. Despite the arrival of a new generation of global datasets on forest area change and biomass, confusion remains about how to produce credible jurisdictional estimates of forest emissions. We demonstrate a method for estimating the relevant historic forest carbon fluxes within the Regency of Berau in eastern Borneo, Indonesia. Our method integrates best available global and local datasets, and includes a comprehensive analysis of uncertainty at the regency scale.Principal Findings and SignificanceWe find that Berau generated 8.91 ± 1.99 million tonnes of net CO2 emissions per year during 2000–2010. Berau is an early frontier landscape where gross emissions are 12 times higher than gross sequestration. Yet most (85%) of Berau’s original forests are still standing. The majority of net emissions were due to conversion of native forests to unspecified agriculture (43% of total), oil palm (28%), and fiber plantations (9%). Most of the remainder was due to legal commercial selective logging (17%). Our overall uncertainty estimate offers an independent basis for assessing three other estimates for Berau. Two other estimates were above the upper end of our uncertainty range. We emphasize the importance of including an uncertainty range for all parameters of the emissions equation to generate a comprehensive uncertainty estimate–which has not been done before. We believe comprehensive estimates of carbon flux uncertainty are increasingly important as national and international institutions are challenged with comparing alternative estimates and identifying a credible range of historic emissions values.

Spatial forest valuation: The role of location in determining attitudes toward payment for ecosystem services policies

Forests provide many benefits (e.g., esthetics, water purification, habitat, carbon sequestration) to humans when they are conserved. However, forest conservation efforts may conflict with other uses, particularly timber harvest. Incentives for forest conservation can be established through payment for ecosystem services (PES) policies. PES policies rely on forest valuation studies which traditionally have valued the whole forest, or characteristics of a forest. Methods that allow variability in estimated forest values over space can provide valuation information at a finer scale and aid in the optimization of PES policies. These spatially explicit values provide information critical to many policy decisions, particularly conservation prioritization and planning.Using moderate resolution satellite remote sensing (i.e., LandSat) and a forest use survey conducted in Kam Cha i, Thailand, methods to estimate forest product valuation for spatially heterogeneous plots are demonstrated. These estimates are produced using geographic information system (GIS) multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA). The MCDA method combines forest use data with associated travel costs and vegetation cover estimates to provide spatially explicit estimates of forest values. This information is then used to compare local use values against potential carbon credit values estimated from the literature. The results show that a majority of the forest plots have higher PES values than for local forest products. Some do not, however, which suggests a possible cause for resistance against potential PES policies implemented in these areas.

Indigenous forest conservation practices in Benue state, Nigeria.

This study investigated indigenous forest conservation practices in Benue State, Nigeria, to provide baseline information for improved forest conservation efforts in the State. Multi-stage sampling technique was adopted to select 10 out of 23 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of the State for the study. Three hundred respondents from 150 households in the 10 LGAs were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaire. Data obtained were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Indigenous forest conservation practices were identified under three main indigenous conservation systems: laws and taboos, application of punitive measures on defaulters and Agroforestry. Apart from ‘no hunting without permission’, no Significant differences (p>0.05) were observed in the use of laws and taboos as indigenous conservation practices. Similarly, no significant differences (p>0.05) were observed in the application of punitive measures on defaulters as a conservation method across the ethnic groups except for the punishment of ‘making sacrifices’. No significant differences (p>0.05) were observed in the use of Agroforestry as a conservation practice. Fire outbreak, secret and indiscriminate logging of timber and harvesting of non-timber forest products, grazing, and inadequate finance for mobilizing forest guards and hence insufficient forest guards were the main challenges of forest conservation efforts in the study area. No significant differences (p>0.05) were observed in the challenges encountered.Key Words: Indigenous, Conservation Practices, Multi-stage, Ethnic groups, Laws, Taboos, Agroforestry, Challenges

Double Decades of Existence of the Kilum-Ijim Community Forest in Cameroon: What Conservation Lessons?

At a time when natural forests remain a substantial framework for solving manifold human-induced environmental problems, forest conservation efforts have often been met with a number of challenges, especially in the midst of growing populations of forest-adjacent communities in the developing countries of the world. However, the initiation of the Kilum-Ijim Forest Project in the Western Highland region of Cameroon (erroneously considered to have been a naturally savannized environment) twenty years ago tells a success conservation story. This study, therefore, examines the fate of the Kilum-Ijim Forest prior to the forest conservation project, the conservation efforts put in place to protect and restore the biodiversity of the area, the conservation challenges, and also proposes other areas of intervention for a continuous successful conservation legacy. Due to the constant population pressure and the resultant overexploitation of the Kilum Mountain forest, the original forest size, estimated at 17,500 hectares in 1963, was reduced to 10,500 hectares by 1983. In recognition of the umbilical link between forest and forest-adjacent communities, the Cameroon Government and BirdLife International liaised with the adjacent tribal communities for a sustainable way of managing the forest. While these communities benefit through the non-consumptive use of the forest and other alternative livelihood means, the ecological viabilities of the forest are equally promoted through biodiversity restoration. Due to this community-based management approach, the Kilum-Ijim forest remains an outstanding example of a richly endowed highland montane forest, with a number of endemic wildlife species. Today, conservation efforts have restored the forest size to over 20,000 hectares. Having understood the need for forest conservation and the ensuing conservation benefits, perhaps it is time to increase the forest conservation sites while more alternatives serving human needs are designed and promoted. This conservation legacy should also serve as an example worth emulating in other highland regions with a history of forest degradation.

Landowner response to wildfire risk: Adaptation, mitigation or doing nothing

Wildfire has brought about ecological, economic, and social consequences that engender human responses in many parts of the world. How to respond to wildfire risk is a common challenge across the globe particularly in areas where lands are controlled by many small private owners because effective wildfire prevention and protection require coordinated efforts of neighboring stakeholders. We explore (i) wildfire response strategies adopted by family forestland owners in the southern United States, one of the most important and productive forest regions in the world, through a landowner survey; and (ii) linkages between the responses of these landowners and their characteristics via multinomial logistic regression. We find that landowners used diverse strategies to respond to wildfire risk, with the most popular responses being “doing nothing” and combined adaptation and mitigation, followed by adaptation or mitigation alone. Landowners who had lost properties to wildfire, lived on their forestlands, had a forest management plan, and were better educated were more likely to proactively respond to wildfire risk. Our results indicate the possibility to enhance the effectiveness of collective action of wildfire risk response by private forestland owners and to coordinate wildfire response with forest conservation and certification efforts. These findings shed new light on engaging private landowners in wildfire management in the study region and beyond.

What incentivizes local forest conservation efforts? Evidence from Bolivia

Efforts to promote forest conservation have focused on two separate types of policy reforms. Decentralization reforms have attempted to make local forest governance more accountable to demands from voters. Meanwhile, Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes like the REDD program (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) have sought to use economic incentives to promote conservation. These programs make different assumptions about the incentives most likely to work in forest conservation. Decentralization reforms assume that citizen pressures on politicians will encourage conservation, while PES approaches assume that an economic incentive—money—is the best approach. Which type of incentive works best in settings with weak institutions? Here, using a unique longitudinal dataset of forest policy in 100 Bolivian municipalities, we examine the relationships between citizen pressures and economic incentives on forest policy. We find that both types of incentives are positively and significantly associated with government investments in forest conservation, and that the magnitudes of these relationships are similar. Further, we find that economic incentives may be especially effective at promoting conservation where citizen pressures are weak or absent.

What incentivizes local forest conservation efforts? Evidence from Bolivia

What incentivizes local forest conservation efforts? Evidence from Bolivia

Airborne lidar-based estimates of tropical forest structure in complex terrain: opportunities and trade-offs for REDD+

BackgroundCarbon stocks and fluxes in tropical forests remain large sources of uncertainty in the global carbon budget. Airborne lidar remote sensing is a powerful tool for estimating aboveground biomass, provided that lidar measurements penetrate dense forest vegetation to generate accurate estimates of surface topography and canopy heights. Tropical forest areas with complex topography present a challenge for lidar remote sensing.ResultsWe compared digital terrain models (DTM) derived from airborne lidar data from a mountainous region of the Atlantic Forest in Brazil to 35 ground control points measured with survey grade GNSS receivers. The terrain model generated from full-density (~20 returns m−2) data was highly accurate (mean signed error of 0.19 ± 0.97 m), while those derived from reduced-density datasets (8 m−2, 4 m−2, 2 m−2 and 1 m−2) were increasingly less accurate. Canopy heights calculated from reduced-density lidar data declined as data density decreased due to the inability to accurately model the terrain surface. For lidar return densities below 4 m−2, the bias in height estimates translated into errors of 80–125 Mg ha−1 in predicted aboveground biomass.ConclusionsGiven the growing emphasis on the use of airborne lidar for forest management, carbon monitoring, and conservation efforts, the results of this study highlight the importance of careful survey planning and consistent sampling for accurate quantification of aboveground biomass stocks and dynamics. Approaches that rely primarily on canopy height to estimate aboveground biomass are sensitive to DTM errors from variability in lidar sampling density.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13021-015-0013-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Evaluating habitat suitability models for nesting white‐headed woodpeckers in unburned forest

ABSTRACTHabitat suitability models can provide guidelines for species conservation by predicting where species of interest are likely to occur. Presence‐only models are widely used but typically provide only relative indices of habitat suitability (HSIs), necessitating rigorous evaluation often using independently collected presence‐absence data. We refined and evaluated presence‐only habitat suitability models for nesting white‐headed woodpeckers (Picoides albolarvatus), a narrowly distributed species of conservation concern that occupies dry conifer forests of the Inland Pacific Northwest, USA. We developed 2 models using Mahalanobis D2 and Maxent techniques from nest location datasets collected on the eastside of the Cascade Mountain Range, Oregon (1 dataset in 1997–2004 and another, sampling a broader spatial extent, in 2010–2011). Consistent with known ecology of white‐headed woodpeckers, both HSI models related positively with percent ponderosa pine, moderate levels of canopy cover (approx. 40%), and moderate‐to‐high levels of heterogeneity in forest structure. Unlike Mahalanobis HSIs, however, Maxent HSIs were consistently and positively related with nest prevalence and positively related with habitat use estimated with independent point count data. Locations with high Maxent HSIs were characterized by canopy openings adjacent to closed canopy forests. The fact that this habitat feature was described by Maxent HSIs but not by Mahalanobis HSIs possibly explains why Maxent HSIs better predicted white‐headed woodpecker occurrence. Additionally, we used presence‐absence data for model evaluation that sampled a broader spatial extent than nest surveys and therefore allowed us to demonstrate the generality of Maxent HSIs. Additional nest location data collected across a broader portion of the species range would be valuable for further model improvement and evaluation, but until such data are available, we recommend use of Maxent HSIs to guide habitat conservation and restoration efforts in unburned dry forests of Oregon. Published 2014. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in the environs of Tara-gedam and Amba remnant forests of Libo Kemkem District, northwest Ethiopia.

BackgroundRemnant forests found in areas that have long been converted to agricultural landscapes are refuges of wild useful plants; and societies inhabiting them are custodians of rich indigenous botanical knowledge. This study was undertaken to document the medicinal plants used by the people living in and around Tara-gedam and Amba remnant forests, northwestern Ethiopia, together with the associated ethnomedicinal knowledge.MethodsData were collected from 105 informants through semi-structured interviews, guided field walk, market survey; and analyzed using standard ethnobotanical analytical tools including ranking and comparison.ResultsA total of 163 medicinal plant species in 145 genera and 67 families were recorded among which Zehneria scabra drew the highest community consensus. Seventy-one percent of the medicinal plants were those used for treating human ailments only, 21% for both human and livestock and 8% for livestock only. Asteraceae, with 14 species, had the highest number of medicinal plant species. The medicinal plants mainly (79.1%) belong to the shrub and herb categories and most of them were sourced from the wild habitats. Leaves and fresh plant materials were more frequently used for medicine preparation than other parts. Protected government and church forests as well as tree propagation in nurseries followed by planting them and local practices constitute the major forest conservation efforts that indirectly protect the medicinal plants in the area. Elders and healers knew more about the medicinal plants, their distribution, the local ethnomedicinal practices and knowledge transfer patterns. Though important for the local healthcare system and with potentials for modern drug discovery, both the plants and the knowledge pool are under threat.ConclusionThe diversity of medicinal plants and the associated indigenous knowledge of Tara-gedam and its environs are of a considerable value to the local community and beyond. There is, therefore, a need for conservation of the vegetation and the medicinal plants along with preservation of the wealth of the indigenous knowledge.