Conquest Of Egypt Research Articles

Images of Arabs and Islam in Burton’s Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah

The study aimed to discuss the position of Arabs and Islam in Western culture, concentrating on the British Victorians whose main conception of Arabia concerned the desert and the exotic orient. The increasing political and economic interest of the British government in Arabia led to more focus on Muslim Arabs in the Near East and the Arabian Peninsula, beginning with Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt c. 1799, and escalating as Suez and the Ottoman Empire became more intertwined with the British imperialism. Missions and tours for various reasons went to the Near East and the Arabian Peninsula to discover and bring information for the Western Empires specially, the Royal Geographical Society. On the other hand, the growing body of science concerning the Arab world came under the umbrella of orientalism, including all writers, novelists and travelogues concerned with ‘the orient’. One of the oriental travellers was Burton, whose mission to visit the two Islamic holy places Al-Madinah and Mecca was a classic and romantic one. Burton’s mission was not only to supply his sponsors with geographical and scientific information about Suez, the Arabian Peninsula and the two holy places, but he had other personal motivations that affected his work; Personal Narrative of A Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah. Continuously, the study applies investigative, descriptive analysis and critical analysis methods to answer the above questions. The study consists of four sections. Section one presents an introduction in five subsections: problem of the study, hypotheses of the study, significance of the study, methodology of the study and finally, structure of the study. Section two presents Victorians’ views of Muslims in three subsections: Victorian thinking and culture in Britain; Islam in the Victorian literature; and Victorian travelogues. Section three comprises a thematic analysis of Burton's Pilgrimage, concentrating on his liberal and ethnographic interests that motivated his imperialism. At the last section, the study discusses the final results, the study limitations and recommendations for the studies about Burton.

FRENCH OCCUPATION OF EGYPT (1798-1801): A CRITICAL ANALYSIS ON EXTERNAL FACTORS AND INTERNAL CRISES OF EGYPT

Egypts internal turmoil causing political instability, economic decline and social ruin were among the factors behind foreign power entrance into Egypt. Oppression and government inefficiency as well as decline in several aspects of life gave a true depiction of the ongoing society and administrative system in Egypt. Nevertheless, external factors also played a role in causing Egypt being colonised by foreign power. This article intends to relook into French occupation of Egypt which occurred in 1798 until 1801 by analysing the external factors and internal crises which enticed the arrival of the occupying power. Based on the method of content analysis, observations were made onto primary and secondary sources. Analysed information were classified and reviewed from political, economic and social perspectives. External factors revealed that the occupation by France had links with world superpowers at that time, in particular Britain and the Ottomans in the aspect of political rivalry. Meanwhile, from the aspect of economy, the desire for control of resources and trade route competition were the main agenda behind the conquest of Egypt. From the social aspect, France was seen to yearn for avenging her defeat in the Crusades and freeing Jerusalem from Muslim rule and spreading the civilisation achieved by the West to eastern countries.

Poll Tax Rates in Roman Egypt

Abstract Discussion of the various poll tax rates in Roman Egypt, which can be reduced to a simple scheme drawn up by the Romans upon their conquest of Egypt. This scheme suggests that in 30 BC the distribution of the population in Egypt was roughly uniform except for the Fayyum (underpopulated) and the western oases (overpopulated), possibly also Thebes (overpopulated). It also suggests that in 30 BC the distribution of the Greek population was uneven, with virtually no Greeks in Upper Egypt, possibly also the oases, and fewer Greeks in Oxyrhynchus than in other metropoleis in Lower and Middle Egypt.

Sudan Topraklarının Mısır Hidivliğine Bağlanması

Located in the center of the African continent, Sudan has a special place with its geographical location, ethnic structure, history and culture. It has a dynamic and strong structure on the Nile basin with its ancient historical texture. The geography known as Sudanese resorts Bilād al-Sūdān, extending from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, covers a wide area in the center of Africa. With the conquest of Egypt, during the reign of Yavuz Sultan Selim, the Ottomans descended to the south of Egypt and expanded their lands and continued their conquest movements. They build military, commercial, scientific and social contacts in the region within the sphere of influence of the Beylerbeyligi (State) of Egypt and the State of Abyssinia. The appointment of Kavalalı Mehmed ‘Alī Pasha as the governor of Egypt increased the influence ot the Ottoman Empire further in the territory of Sudan and the administration of the country between 1821-1895 was named as Ahd al-Turkey. Under the administration of the Ottoman-Egyptian powers, the region was developed and civilized, until its colonization by British Empire. The absence of a comprehensive study about the Ottoman period in the region and its political and cultural contributions to the region motivated this study. In the study it is tegreted to outline and analyse the effect of Ottoman culture and civilization on the region by interpreting previous studies about the history of Ottoman-Sudan relations and annexation of Sudanese territories in the literature.

History and Geography

History and Geography Christopher T. Begg, Thomas Hieke, and Victor H. Matthews Christopher T. Begg Catholic University of America Thomas Hieke Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz Victor H. Matthews Missouri State University 327. [A Political History of Egyptian Temples from Artaxerxes III to the End of the Argedai (342–ca. 305 b.c.e.)] Damien Agut-Labordère, "Gods in the Gray Zone: A Political History of Egyptian Temples from Artaxerxes III to the End of the Argedai (342-ca. 305 BCE)," Times of Transition, 177-86 [see #787]. In his essay, A.-L. sets out to refute the twofold claim promoted by some ancient historians concerning Alexander, according to which the second Persian domination of Egypt (341–336 b.c.e.) was a time of oppression for the Egyptian temples, whereas Alexander himself displayed piety toward the Egyptian gods. Taking his cue from two prominent indicators of Persian royal policy toward the Egyptian temples—the royal subsidizing of building works in the temples and the burials of the sacred bulls in Memphis and Armant—he shows that different Persian kings adopted very different policies regarding the Egyptian [End Page 106] temples and that Alexander's generosity to those temples was a short-lived interlude. Whereas Alexander's early successors did subsidize the cult of the sacred animals to secure the support of the Egyptian population at large, they neglected the temples themselves on the basis of financial and political calculations. Moreover, the dramatic cuts in royal subsidies to the temples, which aimed to fill the royal coffers at the expense of the temples, reflected a long-term tendency that was initiated shortly after Cambyses's conquest of Egypt in 526 b.c.e. and was steadily continued by the pharaohs of the period of Egyptian independence in the 4th cent. b.c.e. and by the Macedonian rulers up till Ptolemy II Philadelphus. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] Google Scholar 328. [Middle Kingdom Royal Patronage] Martina Bardonova, "The 'Prince's Court Is Like a Common Fountain': Middle Kingdom Royal Patronage in the Light of Modern Sociological Concept," Middle Kingdom Palace Culture, 77-100 [see #789]. Patronage, in the many senses of the word, has been discussed extensively in Egyptology in recent years. It has become clear that it was one of the basic realities of ancient Egyptian socio-economic relationships. The existence of patron-client bonds during the Middle Kingdom is a generally accepted fact, and Middle Kingdom societies provided many opportunities for the formation of patron-client relationships at various levels. These could be formed among the elites or between the elites and the lower classes. Questions remain, however, about the details of these types of relationships, e.g., could they exist between the king and certain of his subjects? This study examines the challenges that are encountered when studying the above topic and how they might best be dealt with. The paper is intended to provided an introduction to and description of Middle Kingdom royal patronage relationships. In so doing, the paper seeks to develop a framework within which this particular topic can best be studied. In the first instance, my paper aims to identify key topics to be discussed, and then identifies the most fruitful directions for future research efforts. These issues are studied by way of an examination of the textual sources dealing with six elite officials of both the central and provincial administrations, all of them dating to the time span between the reign of Mentuhotep II and the end of the 12th Dynasty. [Adapted from published abstract—C.T.B.] Google Scholar 329. [The Nukheileh Dolmen Field] Uri Berger, Haim Goren, and Gonen Sharon, "In the Footsteps of Prince Albert Victor and Prince George of Wales: Rediscovering the Dolmen Field," IEJ 70 (2, 2020) 129-49. On April 25, 1882, Prince Albert Victor and Prince George of Wales (the later King George V), guided by R. E. Conder of the Palestinian Exploration Fund, began an exploration of the sources of the Jordan River. On their way westward to Dan, in a region known as the Nukheileh, they discovered several dolmens...

Patrium amnem: образ Нила в римском изобразительном искусстве и литературе в конце I века н. э.

The image of the Nile, formed by Roman authors in the literature of the Flavian era, is compared to the so-called Nilotic scenes embodying a specifically expressed interest in Egyptian culture. It is noted that in relation to the end of the 1st century AD it would be incorrect to say that rhetorical attacks on Egypt, especially inherent of Octavian’s reign, have completely ceased: they continued to exist in parallel with new imperially politicized views, less contemptuous, but in any case emphasizing the importance of the conquest of Egypt. The conclusion is made that for Statius, as well as for Valerius Flaccus, the Nile remains a politicized object, but the focus of political interpretation is shifting from sharp criticism of the otherness of the new province towards rethink-ing the space of the Nile Valley as an integral part of the empire. The Nile is assigned only the role of a link between the events of the distant (mostly mythical) past and the present. At the same time, of the whole variety of plot lines of the Julio-Claudian era, the most stable are the negative motives of the works of Virgil and Lucan. At the same time, the political motives so representative of the literature of the second half of the 1st century AD are not directly reflected in the Nilotic scenes.

Interaction of Muslim Arabs with the local population in the Maghreb (50-92 AH / 670-710 AD)

The Muslim Arabs began to think seriously to set out for the Maghreb after the conquest of Egypt in the year (20 AH / 640 AD) at the hands of the leader Amr ibn al-Aas, who believed that the departure towards the Maghreb was a necessary step to secure the western borders of Egypt and protect it from the attacks that might be exposed to it. By the Byzantine forces, then controlling all the lands west of Egypt, this idea was the first and essential step in the Arab conquest of the Maghreb. Some of them divided it into seven stages according to the leaders who took up the jihad there, and some of them divided it into two stages, according to the nature of the conquest in each stage. (50-92 AH/670-710AD).During the research, we tried to reveal the most important principles that the Arab field leaders dealt with towards the local population, during the organized conquests and stability operations that began since the second mandate of Uqba bin Nafeh in the year (50 AH / 670 AD), and we will address the topic of research according to the historical sequence of the governors of Morocco.

دور الأمیر عقبة بن عامر الجهنی السیاسی والثقافی فی صدر الإسلام (1-58هـ/622-677م)

دور الأمیر عقبة بن عامر الجهنی السیاسی والثقافی فی صدر الإسلام (1-58هـ/622-677م)

Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari, the first Egypt and Maghreb Governor of the Umayyad

Mısır toprakları, tarih boyunca çok farklı inançları içinde barındırmış bir coğrafyadır. Bölge, fethinden önce Bizans’ın önemli bir eyaleti iken, fethinden sonra da Müslümanların gözde bir vilayeti olmuştur. Halifeler, sahip olduğu pek çok özellik sebebiyle Mısır’a önem vermişler, atadıkları idarecileri özenle seçmişlerdir. Çalışmamızın konusu olan Emevîlerin Mısır valilerinden Mesleme b. Muhalled, bölgede yaklaşık on beş yıl valilik yapmıştır. Kendisi Mısır’ın fethinde bulunmuş, gösterdiği kahramanlıklarla göz doldurmuş, fatih komutan Amr b. el-Âs’a en yakın isimlerden biri olmuştur. Mesleme mümtaz bir sahâbî, meşhur bir komutan ve siyasî alanda yeterliliğine şahit olunmuş bir idarecidir. Tüm gayreti halkın refahı için olmuştur. Valilik yaptığı dönemde hem Mısır hem de Kuzey Afrika müreffeh ve sükûnet içerisinde bir süreç geçirmiştir. Cami mimarisine ilk defa minare eklemek suretiyle İslâm âlemine eşsiz bir katkı sunmuş, bayındırlık alanında Mısır’a büyük hizmetler vermiştir. Özellikle Emevîlerin Mısır politikasını anlamak için Mesleme’nin 47-62/667-682 tarihleri arasındaki valilik yıllarını incelemek önemlidir. Mesleme aynı zamanda Mısır ile birlikte Mağrib’de idarecilik yapan ilk vali olma özelliğini taşır. Çalışmamızda Mesleme b. Muhalled’in hayatı ve İslâm fetihlerindeki rolü ile Muâviye tarafından atandığı Mısır valiliği konuları, ilk dönem kaynakları başta olmak üzere birçok kaynak tarafsız bir şekilde taranarak ele alınacak, Mesleme’nin şahsında Emevîler’in Mısır politikası incelenecektir.

Abbâsîler Dönemine Kadar Mısır’da Kıptîler ve Müslümanlarla İlişkileri

İslâm’ın ilk dönemlerinde Müslümanlar farklı coğrafyalara hâkim olmuşlar ve buralarda farklı etnik ve dini kimlik sahibi topluluklarla ilişkiye girmişlerdir. Bu bağlamda fetih öncesinde Bizans için, fetihten sonra ise Müslümanlar için büyük önem ifade eden Mısır, Hz. Ömer döneminde hâkimiyet altına alınmıştır. Fetih sırasında Mısır topraklarında genel olarak Kıptî yerli halk ve Bizans destekli Rumlar yaşamaktaydı. Kıptîler kendilerine özgü yaşam şekilleriyle yöneticilerinden farklı özelliklere sahiplerdi ve Mısır’da ikinci sınıf insan muamelesi görmekteydi. Bu çalışmada Mısır diyarının yerli halkı olan Kıptîler’in İslâm öncesindeki yaşantıları ve fetihle birlikte yeni idarecilerle olan ilişkileri Emevîler dönemini de içine alacak şekilde konu edilmiştir. İlk fethedilen bölgelerden olan Mısır’da görevli valiler ilk dönemlerden itibaren halka daha önce yaşadıkları olumsuzlukların aksine hoşgörüyle yaklaşmışlar, inanç özgürlüğü başta olmak üzere huzur içerisinde bir hayat yaşama imkânı sunmuşlardır. Kıptî Hıristiyan halkın önemli bir kısmı fetihten sonraki birkaç yüzyıl içinde İslâm’ı tercih etmiş, bir kısmı ise cizye vergisini düzenli olarak ödemişlerdir. Ancak özellikle bazı Emevî idarecilerinin vergilerle ilgili bir kısım uygulamaları yerli halkın öfkesine ve ayaklanmaların yaşanmasına sebep olmuştur. Buna rağmen genel olarak baktığımızda fethinden Abbâsîler dönemine kadar olan yaklaşık yüz on yıllık bir sürede Kıptîler Müslüman idareci ve yöneticilerle huzur içerisinde yaşamışlardır. Müslümanların Mısır’daki Hıristiyan halkla olan ilişkileri ilk dönemde Müslüman idarecilerin Gayr-ı Müslim tebaaya olan yaklaşımı hakkında da bilgiler vermesi yönüyle önemlidir. Bu çalışmada Kıptîlerin Mısır’ın fethinden sonra özellikle Emeviler döneminde Müslüman idarecilerle olan ilişkilerinin hangi düzeyde olduğunun ortaya konulması amaçlanmıştır.

The Field of Cloth of Gold by Glenn Richardson

Reviewed by: The Field of Cloth of Gold by Glenn Richardson Brian Brege (bio) Henry VIII, Francis I, Charles V, Field of Cloth of Gold, Renaissance Diplomacy, Court Culture, Jousting, Renaissance Spectacle, Summit Diplomacy, Machiavelli Glenn Richardson. The Field of Cloth of Gold. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013. 288 pages + xii. $65.00. Between May 26 and July 13, 1520, three young monarchs met near the shores of the English Channel where their lands converged. The papal proclamation of Universal Peace, which provided the respite enabling these meetings, was to have constituted the prelude to a united front against the rapidly expanding Ottoman Empire, fresh from its conquest of Egypt and knocking upon Europe's door.1 In celebration of both this Universal Peace and peace between France and England, Francis I and Henry VIII had long agreed to meet.2 Meanwhile, however, newly elected Emperor Charles V harbored fears that the weakest of the three monarchs, Henry VIII, would join his mighty rival Francis I in alliance against him and his possessions. Consequently, Charles arranged to meet Henry in May and again in July on both sides of Henry's summit with Francis in June.3 Amid intense dynastic and national competition and a rising tide of religious conflict, the grandly proclaimed peace would prove fleeting. In the following years not only would these three rulers repeatedly [End Page 123] find themselves at war, but Henry VIII would also famously break with the Papacy, and France would join in alliance with Suleiman the Magnificent's Ottoman Empire. Pope Leo X and Cardinal Wolsey's vision for Universal Peace had proved a chimera. Surely, then, the Field of Cloth of Gold, the grand Anglo-French tournament-cum-summit-meeting meant to seal the Peace, must have been no more than an extravagantly wasteful party marred by duplicity and empty rhetoric. This line of criticism dates back nearly to the event itself and was expressed cogently in a 1532 sermon by Bishop Fisher that set the tone for subsequent historiography.4 In a well-researched and perceptive history of the vast spectacle, The Field of Cloth of Gold, Glenn Richardson argues, however, that the failure of the aspiration to Universal Peace does not mean that the participants in the Field were insincere or unserious or that their extravagant spending was frivolous, but merely that they were unsuccessful.5 Richardson bookends his analysis with summaries of the political and diplomatic context that explain the rationale for the Field and the political stakes for all involved. Chapter 1, "European War and 'Universal Peace,'" sets the stage with an apposite passage from Shakespeare's Henry VIII. It then briefly introduces the major characters, the dramatic political context of the Italian Wars, and Charles V's contested Imperial election.6 Nearly in passing, Richardson notes that it was in 1519, in the context of preparing for the Field of Cloth of Gold, that resident ambassadors were first exchanged between France and England.7 Resident ambassadors perform a starring role in the traditional narrative of the development of modern diplomacy. In Richardson's account, the ambassadors play an essential part in organizing the Field, sending and receiving gifts, allaying concerns, relaying information, and serving as honorable proxies. The heralds who regularly appear—Garter King of Arms, Orléans King of Arms, Norroy King of Arms, and so on—have an unresolved relationship to the new resident ambassadors borrowed from fifteenth-century Italian practice.8 Greater reflection on the interaction of old and new, whether with cannons and knights or resident ambassadors and heralds, would have been welcome. Richardson's argument instead concentrates on likening the Field to modern patterns. He adopts Peter Gwyn's description of Cardinal Wolsey doing "'shuttle diplomacy'" avant la lettre and makes comparisons with the Beijing Olympics.9 Above all, Richardson characterizes the Field as a prototype of summit diplomacy, citing the modern litany from the Big Three at Tehran, Potsdam, and Yalta through Nixon in China to Reagan and Gorbachev in Reykjavik.10 [End Page 124] Richardson begins with the simple, yet powerful "premise that people do not generally spend huge amounts of money on major social and political events...

Death in the Temple of Ptah: The Roman Conquest of Egypt and Conflict at Memphis

This study aims to trace the possible fate of the family of the High Priest of Ptah after the Roman conquest in 30bce. The mysterious death of Imhotep / Padibastetivcreated a clear rupture in the succession line. At first, Roman authorities seemed to hesitate to appoint a new high priest of Memphis, for various reasons, and thus waited almost three years to install Pasherienamunii, the first cousin of Imhotep / Padibastetiv, at the temple of Ptah. This occurred simultaneously with the creation of new priestly office: “prophet of the son of Caesar.” However, the embalmed body of Imhotep / Padibastetivremained unburied until 23bce, which might indicate previous dysfunctional mutual relations between the primary and the secondary branches of the same family.

German

The article presents a new interpretation of a published Byzantine papyrus letter from the Collection of the Austrian National Library. Its first editor argued that it offered a precious testimony to the religious upheavals in Alexandria on the eve of its conquest by the Arabs. This article shows that the papyrus was found in the Fayum and does not necessarily come from Alexandria, and that the text should be dated to the late sixth or early seventh century, not in the 630s or early 640s. It is also proven that it is neither related to the monophysitic controversy nor to a group of monks or the Patriarch of Alexandria, as the first editor had suggested. At the end of the article a reconstruction of the content of the letter is attempted as well as of the facts to which it refers on the basis of the secure data now presented.Late Byzantine Alexandria; Monophysitism; Ecclesiastical disputes; Patriarch of Alexandria; Arab conquest of Egypt

A Rare Find The Süleymaniye’s Futūḥ Miṣr

The earliest and most complete Arabic history of the Islamic conquest of Egypt is Ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥakam’s Futūḥ Miṣr (The Conquest of Egypt). The first, and only complete edited edition of this work, was produced in 1922 by Charles Torrey. He based this work on the only four known manuscripts to exist. One at the British Library, two at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and a fourth in Leiden. The copy held by the British Library was the most complete of the four, and thus Torrey used it as the main source of his edition. Unknown to Torrey and all other Western scholars, was yet a fifth manuscript, held at the Suleymaniye Library in Istanbul. In comparison to the other four manuscripts, this copy is superior in almost every way. This article is meant to introduce the Suleymaniye’s manuscript and compare it with the other known copies in order to demonstrate similarities, key differences, shared lineage, and to prove why it is superior to its counterparts.

France's Mediterranean Policy: Between Myths and Strategy

Since the beginning of the nineteenth century and Napoleon Bonaparte's conquest of Egypt, France has tended to maintain a complex relationship with countries on the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. In this context, fascination, admiration for the culture, but also sufficiency and search for power and domination go hand-in-hand. From the imposition of its presence by force, either through colonisation, protectorates or military adventures, France has seen her policy/policies towards the region shift to more intricate strategies, the ultimate aim of which being its desire to retain a lasting link, meant to remain an ‘exceptional' one. In this article, the author attempts to examine these strategies and the dynamics behind them—strategies that are often looked at as being a mixture of absolute sincerity and political cynicism. Obviously, this also includes the Union for the Mediterranean, France's initiative that President Nicolas Sarkozy put forward.

Calligraphy, Colour and Light in the Blue Qur'an

The Blue Qur'an is one of the most mesmerising manuscripts produced in Islam. Today, the most commonly held view is that this manuscript was produced for the early Fāṭimid court, before the conquest of Egypt in 358/969. However, in recent years our knowledge of early Qur'anic manuscripts, their calligraphy and the illumination that adorns their pages has greatly progressed. In the first part of this article, I will argue that the Blue Qur'an is in fact much earlier than has hitherto been recognised and dates to the early ʿAbbāsid period. This will be the occasion to posit some elements of chronology for early Qur'anic scripts. Once this new framework has been set for the manuscript, I will move on to explore the origin of its colour scheme, and its different layers of meaning; between the practical, the temporal and the spiritual.

Napoleon: The Path to Power (review)

Reviewed by: Napoleon: The Path to Power Llewellyn Cook Napoleon: The Path to Power. By Philip Dwyer. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2008. Maps. Illustrations. Notes. Select bibliography. Index. Pp. 651. $35.00. Two hundred years after the apogee of Napoleon’s rule, can another biography of the French emperor further our understanding of that era? Steven Englund’s Napoleon: A Political Life (2003) and David Bell’s The First Total War (2007) have answered positively. Philip Dwyer’s biography is certain, by design, to provoke strong criticisms. His analysis of the young Corsican’s psyche addresses unusual issues and makes bold assertions. Dwyer is well-respected for his recent histories of Prussia (2000 Prussia (2002). His Napoleon and Europe (2003) and Napoleon and His Empire (2006) serve as an inventory of recent scholarship. Thus, he is qualified to deliver a unique perspective on Napoleon’s rise. Dwyer has chosen, in this psychological study, to remove the protagonist from the forefront of events and insert him into the momentous events of the French Revolution. Claiming that Napoleon was the forerunner of modern dictators, Dwyer focuses on his attempts at selfpromotion through the available media. He admits that Bonaparte was not the only French general to manipulate the historical record, but he was a student of history who instinctively understood the “need for a hero” and sought to “dramatize his own role in the wars” (p. 7). Dwyer deserves praise for elements of his fresh, modern approach and exhaustive research that utilizes archival sources, rare memoirs, and recent scholarship. He begins with a comprehensive examination of Corsican society under French hegemony, at the time of Napoleon’s youth. He is masterful in describing the Italian reaction to French “liberation” in 1796–97. Dwyer reveals his biographical methodology. Since much of our knowledge about these aspects of Napoleon’s life has been based on his own writings, which Dwyer claims were self-serving and false, he discounts them. In addition, he dismisses many nineteenth century memoirs, especially those authored from St. Helena. Thus, Dwyer is obliged to propose alternative accounts or to speculate. While many of his assertions seem fair, perusal of the endnotes reveals that his choice of sources, in many cases, are those that debase the role of Napoleon. Moreover, the author leaves subtle barbs in the text that reveal an anti-Napoleon bias. Those seeking insights into Napoleon’s military capabilities will be disappointed. Bonaparte’s service in the French Revolution, his 1796–1797 campaign in Italy, and the conquest of Egypt, are given only cursory attention. Dwyer focuses on only three battles: Lodi, Arcola, and the Pyramids. He addresses these events only with respect to Napoleon’s [End Page 1292] reputation. Dwyer emphasizes the contemporary artists whose iconic imagery served to advance Bonaparte’s political career. The famous bridge-crossings at Lodi and Arcola, Dwyer claims, are simply “the most blatant examples” of heroic images as “Napoleon went about constructing his life” (pp. 1–8). Dwyer’s biography is fascinating in its unusual descriptions of Napoleon’s tribulations and his motivations. However, due to his methods a novice would be convinced that Napoleon was neither the central figure of his own family, nor a talented military genius who controlled his own destiny. Rather, by Dwyer’s account, the man who would rise to rule over France merely possessed more luck than ability, and simply manipulated the presses to found a falsified reputation. Llewellyn Cook Jacksonville State University Jacksonville, Alabama Copyright © 2008 Society for Military History

Alexander the Great's Relation to Sophistry and Greek Oratory and Their Contribution to Alexander's Image by Alexandrian Hellenistic Culture

As a cultural term Hellenism also refers to the large cultural movement that expanded in this empire. This epoch produced a new view of humankind because of the esteem of education. One of the educational aspects is the Greek sophistry, which expanded from Greece over the Mediterranean up to Alexandria. Using extant sources and non-extant sources on Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic sophistry and philosophy in Alexandria we will focus in this article on the cultural efforts introduced in the time of Alexander's conquest of Egypt and later Hellenistic time especially in terms of sophistic knowledge. We will focus on the institutionalization of sophists under the reign of Alexander explaining how Alexander employed them as court writers, counselors, diplomats, and historians and the relationship between the emperor and this kind of educated men. As a special feature we will discuss the surviving names of historical works on Alexandria and Alexander, a topic of writing initiated by the emperor himself as assignments for the sophists around the emperor. We will see that the sophists around Alexander had a different position compared with the contemporary Greek orators that -as the case of Demosthenes exemplifies- were controversially opposed to Alexander's politics. Most research done considers the sophists a group of educators. But the sophists we investigate in show clearly that sophistry was a skill associated with different professions. We can clearly claim that the sophists were in terms of their function not bound to teach writing and speaking, but held public positions.

History in the interpretation of the pattern of p49a,fTaqI RFLP Y-chromosome variation in Egypt: A consideration of multiple lines of evidence

The possible factors involved in the generation of p49a,f TaqI Y-chromosome spatial diversity in Egypt were explored. The object was to consider explanations beyond those that emphasize gene flow mediated via military campaigns within the Nile corridor during the dynastic period. Current patterns of the most common variants (V, XI, and IV) have been suggested to be primarily related to Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom political actions in Nubia, including occasional settler colonization, and the conquest of Egypt by Kush (in upper Nubia, northern Sudan), thus initiating the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. However, a synthesis of evidence from archaeology, historical linguistics, texts, distribution of haplotypes outside Egypt, and some demographic considerations lends greater support to the establishment, before the Middle Kingdom, of the observed distributions of the most prevalent haplotypes V, XI, and IV. It is suggested that the pattern of diversity for these variants in the Egyptian Nile Valley was largely the product of population events that occurred in the late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene through the First Dynasty, and was sustained by continuous smaller-scale bidirectional migrations/interactions. The higher frequency of V in Ethiopia than in Nubia or upper (southern) Egypt has to be taken into account in any discussion of variation in the Nile Valley.

Siegecraft and spoliation,c.500 BC: a tale of two cities

AbstractAt some date shortly after the Persian conquest of Egypt (525 BC) a Persian army dispatched by the satrap of Egypt, Aryandes, was encamped on the Lykaian Hill outside the city of Cyrene, threatening its capture. How far hostilities had advanced is not known, but very soon the army abandoned its position and marched off on the return way to Egypt (Herodotus IV, 16–67, 200–203). Herodotus' account is an involved story how the Persian force came to be in Cyrenaica, and it is not clear why it departed from Cyrene with little achieved there. The episode would be of limited substance except for the chance discovery of some antiquities in the region of the Persian camp. About 20 years later, in 498 BC, a Persian force was deployed in Cyprus to reduce the city of Paphos in the aftermath of the unsuccessful Cypriote uprising to support the Ionian revolt. A siege mound was raised against the city wall employing an unexpected variety of material. Latterly the mound has been excavated and afforded wide ranging information. Hitherto these archaeological facts have not been considered in conjunction, and an attempt to do so may be instructive.