Conflict-affected Areas Research Articles

Shocks, Resilience and Structural Transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa

Evidence of how resilience factors mitigate the adverse effects of shocks on individuals, households and communities is clearly established. However, such evidence at the macro level is limited, especially on the pace of structural transformation. This paper explores whether the growing incidence of terrorism, armed conflicts and natural disasters in SSA impeded the pace of structural transformation. We conceptualize the notion of macro-resilience and test whether resilience factors mitigate the adverse effects of shocks on two measures of structural transformation: agriculture’s share of GDP and of national employment. We find that structural transformation is impeded by armed conflict and terrorism-related shocks but not natural disasters and that resilience factors enhance the pace of agricultural transformation. This implies that, while agriculture is often destroyed in conflict-affected areas, the broader impacts are even more negative for other sectors of the economy. However, surprisingly, we find negative or insignificant interaction terms between the shock and resilience variables, implying no mitigative role of resilience capacities. This may suggest, in the case of conflicts and terrorism, the presence of major, debilitating effects which limit the mitigative capacity of resilience factors. We further explore the implications for future research and possible strategies to address the growing threats from shocks.

The importance of food systems in a climate crisis for peace and security in the Sahel

AbstractConflicts are increasingly analysed as exhibiting a stealth complexity in which triggers and consequences are intricately linked to climate, environmental degradation and the struggle to control a finite pool of natural resources. The climate crisis is a multifaceted reality and, against this background, many pressing priorities compete with each other. The disruptive effect of climate variability and change on food systems is particularly acute and constitutes a direct and tangible threat to livelihoods globally. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate and discuss the importance of food systems under a climate crisis in exacerbating conflicts in the Sahelian region and propose interventions beyond and complementary to the usual military and security solutions. We demonstrate for the Sahel that (i) climate hazards are frequent and exposure to climate variability is high, (ii) hotspots of high climate variability and conflict exist, and (iii) impact pathways by which climate exacerbates food systems that can lead to conflicts are documented in the literature. While these three findings suggest clear links between conflict and climate, we find that (iv) current peace indices do not include climate and food systems indicators and therefore provide an uncomplete picture, and (v) food systems programming for climate adaptation has so far not explicitly considered peace and security outcomes. Furthermore, we propose that food systems programming that truly tackles the climate crisis should take more explicit account of peace and security outcomes in conflict-affected areas.

Self-harming behavior in relation to exposure to inter-personal violence among youth and young adults in Colombia

The effects of violence exposure on the risk of self-harming behaviors of youth in low- and middle-income countries is not well-understood. Using household survey data from one nationally representative sample and one sample from conflict-affected areas, we examined violence exposure and self-harm among Colombian youth aged 13–24. Survey-weighted prevalence ratios comparing self-harming behaviors by exposure to violence were estimated with Poisson log-linear models, controlling for age, sex, education and food insecurity. Compared to unexposed youth, those exposed to violence in both home and community settings were 7.97 (95% confidence interval [CI]:2.72–23.36) times more likely in the conflict-affected sample, and 21.05 (95% CI: 8.80–50.34) times more likely in the national sample to report having attempted suicide. Among Colombian youth, exposure to violence as either witness or victim was associated with greater prevalence of self-harming behaviors. Youth suicide prevention programs can address exposures to violence as a risk factor for self-harm.

Association of Conflict-Affected Environment on Ethiopian Students' Mental Health and Its Correlates During COVID-19 Era.

BackgroundEthiopia has seen the largest number of conflict-induced displacement. Mental disturbance has been identified as a major public health concern among conflict-affected people, including students. Due to the effect of continuous unfold of the COVID-19 epidemic in the conflicted affected setting, the mental health problem tends to be increased. This creates a double burden for students from conflict affected setting after school re-opening. As a result, the goal of this research was to evaluate the mental health impact and its correlates in students from conflict affected setting, Ethiopia.ObjectiveTo assess the association of conflict-affected environment on Ethiopian students’ mental health and its correlates during COVID-19 era.MethodsFrom April 1 to 30, 2021, an institutional-based cross-sectional survey was undertaken. A total sample of 795 students were participated through a systematic random sampling technique. The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale was used to assess mental distress (K10). The correlation between outcome and explanatory variables was investigated using bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.ResultsA total of 795 people were examined, with a 100% response rate. Mental distress was reported about 59.4% with a 95% CI of 57% to 62.9%. Conflicted related sexual abuse (AOR = 4.1, 95% CI 2.37 to 6.94), witnessed shooting (AOR = 3.49, 95% CI 2.7 to 5.89), threat to security and safety (AOR = 2.23, 95% CI 1.29 to 3.87), being female (AOR = 3.01, 95% CI 1.61 to 5.44), and poor academic performance (AOR = 2.1, 95% CI 1.08 to 4.08) were found to be substantially correlated.ConclusionStudents from conflict-affected areas are at high risk of mental distress. Therefore, the ministry of health, ministry of education of Ethiopia and humanitarian organizations should work collaboratively in providing consistent school-based psychosocial support and appropriate intervention for students.

Socioeconomic Inequalities and HIV Testing During Antenatal Care in High- Medium- and Low-Conflict Intensity Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa

Understanding HIV testing determinants in different settings is vital to reducing new infections. This study assessed HIV testing rates during antenatal care (ANC) in seven sub-Saharan African countries designated as high, medium, low or no conflict intensity settings. We ranked and plotted concentration curves for HIV testing by socioeconomic inequality and determined their concentration indices (CCI). Testing for HIV during ANC was highest in Zimbabwe (95.7%) and lowest in Sudan (3.6%). Countries with medium and high conflict intensity experienced higher HIV testing inequality (CCI = 0.38) than countries with low or no conflict (CCI = 0.15). Low HIV testing rates were associated with no education, rural areas, poorest wealth index quintiles and home birth, which demonstrate that determinants of HIV testing during ANC in conflict-affected areas are complex and context-based. Programme implementation and policymakers must acknowledge these complexities and local contexts in their program designs and planning.

Ethical considerations of disaster research in conflict-affected areas

PurposeDebates on the ethics of disaster and humanitarian studies concern unequal relations in research (among research institutes/researchers/stakeholders); the physical and psychological well-being of research participants and researchers; and the imposition of western methods, frameworks and epistemologies to the study of disasters. This paper focuses on everyday ethics: how they need to be translated throughout the everyday practices of research and how researchers can deal with the ethical dilemmas that inevitably occur.Design/methodology/approachThis paper analyses the process of addressing ethics-related dilemmas from the first author's experiences researching disaster governance in high-intensity conflict settings, in particular drawing from 4 to 6 months of fieldwork in South Sudan and Afghanistan. In addition, ethical issues around remote research are discussed, drawing on the example of research conducted in Yemen. It is based on the personal notes taken by the first author and on the experience of both authors translating guidelines for research in remote and hazardous areas into research practices.FindingsThe paper concerns translating ethics into the everyday practices of research planning, implementation and communication. It argues for the importance of adaptive research processes with space for continuous reflection in order to advance disaster studies based on (1) equitable collaboration; (2) participatory methodologies wherever possible; (3) safety and security for all involved; (4) ethical approaches of remote research and (5) responsible and inclusive research communication and research-uptake. Openness about gaps and limitations of ethical standards, discussions with peers about dilemmas and reporting on these in research outcomes should be embedded in everyday ethics.Originality/valueThe paper contributes to discussions on everyday ethics, where ethics are integral to the epistemologies and everyday practices of research.

Public awareness, health seeking practices and constraints to uptake of COVID-19 testing in the conflict-affected Anglophone regions of Cameroon

Background The number of COVID-19 cases around the world are on the rise, yet testing rates in Cameroon are still low especially in conflict-affected areas. We investigated the awareness, health seeking practices and barriers to COVID-19 testing in the conflict-affected communities of the North West and South West Regions of Cameroon, in order to contribute to the development of policies aiming at reduction of the disease burden. Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted from October to November 2020, with residents in the North West and South West Regions. A questionnaire was administered to determine public awareness and identify aspects that may influence uptake of COVID-19 testing in conflict settings. Results Of the 872 respondents, 53.7% were females, 67.2% lived in an urban setting and 30.3% were internally displaced. 72.9% respondents had heard of COVID-19, with social media being the main channel of information. 95.2% respondents had presented with COVID-19 symptom with only 36/880 who did the test. 22.2% of respondents self-medicated and 45.6% never took any medication. Kidnappings, gunshots and distance travelled accounted for some reasons some respondents had never tested for COVID-19. Conclusion COVID-19 prevention efforts should make use of social media in circulating correct information to residents of the North West and South West Regions. Information on the various testing sites should be widely disseminated using various channels especially social media, community health workers, and religious leaders. Community-based testing of COVID-19 using rapid diagnostic tests is recommended.

Conflict and health: Building on the role of infrastructure

• Infrastructure is a diverse concept; different types do not uniformly affect the relationship between conflict and health. • We employ data from sub-Saharan Africa to evaluate how types of infrastructure moderate the effect of conflict on health. • More developed physical infrastructure mitigates the effect of conflict on health. • Living in remote areas with higher food production may confer health protection from conflict. Conflict undermines health. But infrastructure, such as transportation networks, hospitals, and markets, can moderate the effects of conflict on health. We make two primary contributions to this established observation. First, we disentangle important differences in the roles that three types of infrastructure play in moderating the effect of conflict on health. Second, we evaluate conflict intensity as a continuous measure, capturing how different types of infrastructure could protect health in conflict-affected areas. We merge geocoded conflict and infrastructure metrics with individual-level child health data as a marker of societal well-being which is particularly sensitive to conflict. Our results, which cover 29 Sub-Saharan African states between 2000 and 2018, indicate that physical infrastructure ameliorates the effects of conflict on health. However, living in remote areas with higher food production also confers significant protection from conflict. This empirical pattern presents a policy challenge since increasing access to markets and reducing the degree of subsistence agriculture is associated with health improvement and economic development over time. Living in more populated areas comes with both substantial health benefits and risks. These effects are likely to become more complex as countries in Sub-Saharan Africa continue to urbanize.

Inequalities in catastrophic health expenditures in conflict-affected areas and the Colombian peace agreement: an oaxaca-blinder change decomposition analysis

BackgroundThe present study analyzes inequalities in catastrophic health expenditures in conflict-affected regions of Meta, Colombia and socioeconomic factors contributing to the existence and changes in catastrophic expenditures before and after the sign of Colombian Peace Agreement with FARC-EP guerilla group in 2016.MethodsThe study uses the results of the survey Conflicto, Paz y Salud (CONPAS) conducted in 1309 households of Meta, Colombia, a territory historically impacted by armed conflict, for the years 2014 and 2018. We define catastrophic expenditures as health expenditures above 20% of the capacity to pay of a household. We disaggregate the changes in inequalities in catastrophic expenditures through the Oaxaca-Blinder change decomposition method.ResultsThe incidence of catastrophic expenditures slightly increased between 2014 to 2018, from 29.3 to 30.7%. Inequalities in catastrophic expenditures, measured through concentration indexes (CI), also increased from 2014 (CI: -0.152) to 2018 (CI: -0.232). Results show that differences in catastrophic expenditures between socioeconomic groups are mostly attributed to an increased influence of specific sociodemographic variables such as living in rural zones, being a middle-aged person, living in conflict-affected territories, or presenting any type of mental and physical disability.ConclusionsConflict-deescalation and the peace agreement may have facilitated lower-income groups to have access to health services, especially in territories highly impacted by conflict. This, consequently, may have led to higher levels of out-of-pocket expenditures and, therefore, to higher chances of experiencing catastrophic expenditures for lower-income groups in comparison to higher-income groups. Therefore, results indicate the importance of designing policies that guarantee access to health services for people in conflict -affected regions but also, that minimize health care inequalities in out-of-pocket payments that may arouse between people at different socioeconomic groups.

Effects of Two Chlorine Gas Attacks on Hospital Admission and Clinical Outcomes in Kafr Zita, Syria.

BackgroundIn 2014, Hama Governorate was exposed twice to chlorine gas, with 15 patients presenting to Kafr Zita Hospital in Northwest Syria. This study aimed to describe clinical manifestations of chlorine gas exposure to identify factors leading to facility admission and the need for ICU/intubation in conflict-affected areas with limited healthcare infrastructure.MethodsWe conducted a case-series study, using medical records of suspected chlorine-exposed patients presenting at Kafr Zita Hospital on either 11 April or 22 May 2014. Data on age, sex, initial clinical presentation, therapeutic management, and outcome were compared by hospital admission/non-admission and attack date. All patients provided verbal informed consent.ResultsFifteen patients with signs of chlorine gas exposure had detailed medical records. The mean age was 25.7 years (range 2-59), eight were male (53%), and three (20%) were under age 16.At initial presentation, all experienced respiratory distress, due to severe airway inflammation confirmed by nonspecific pulmonary infiltrates on chest x-ray, and similar intestinal, neurological, dermatological, ophthalmological, and psychological signs and symptoms. Acute management consisted of oxygen and bronchodilators for all patients, hydrocortisone (93%), antiemetics (80%), and dexamethasone (13%). Seven (47%) made a rapid symptomatic recovery and were discharged the same day and eight (53%) were admitted for a median of two days (range 1-6 days), one of whom required intubation and later died. The only significant associations found were higher mean pulse rate (i.e. 138 versus 124; p=0.043) and body temperature (37.0 versus 36.5; p=0.019) among admitted patients compared to non-admitted.ConclusionOur results demonstrated that even in low-resource humanitarian settings the survival rate for chlorine gas exposed patients is fair. Despite the small sample, this study provides insight into the clinical presentation, management, and outcomes of weaponized chlorine gas exposure, though further research is required to understand any chronic consequences.

Sustaining Successful ICT Integration in Remote Rural Schools

This paper aims to provide insights into how teachers can sustain ICT integration practices in geographically isolated and disadvantaged areas. A mixed-method case study design was used for the study. Data were collected through interviews, questionnaires, classroom observation, and document examination. Qualitative analysis and descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data. For data validity, triangulation of responses and member checking was carried out. The study identified successful technology integration factors in geographically isolated and disadvantaged schools: a strong community of practice, an adequate support system, and contextual ICT integration practices. It suggests that teachers’ pedagogical practices related to ICT toned to undergo a continuous process of review and reflection to ensure that ICT-related practices remain pedagogically effective and relevant to changing needs and contexts. The account of the teachers in this study, focusing on their teaching experiences in a school in a remote, low-income area, creates a paradigm for comparative research on education in challenging contexts. Comparative studies on ICT integration practices in poverty-stricken, post-disaster, and conflict-affected areas, could provide inputs for formulating context-specific policy recommendations that could support successful ICT integration in small rural schools in the Philippines and other developing countries.

Conflict and Poverty in Afghanistan’s Transition

Despite record economic growth in the decade that followed the fall of the Taliban regime, poverty remained stubbornly high in Afghanistan, declining substantially only in regions that suffered more from conflict. This paper aims to explain this apparent puzzle by combining conflict-related indicators at the province level with household level observations. Estimates, which start in 2007 and stop in 2014 because of data availability constraints, show that large troop deployments reduced conflict intensity but also boosted local consumption, an effect reinforced by foreign aid flows being larger in conflict-affected areas. The robustness of these findings is assessed through an out-of-sample simulation of the impact of declining international troops and foreign aid after 2014. The simulation accurately predicts the sharp deterioration in living standards uncovered by a 2016 household survey.

Is the success of entrepreneurs dependent on the environment in a conflict zone: insights from Indian-administered Kashmir

PurposeThe purpose of this research is to empirically examine the impact of selecting entrepreneurial framework conditions on the success of entrepreneurs in a conflict zone. The study was conducted in Kashmir, which is a fitting conflict context. The study undertaken responds to the call by multiple authors to substantiate the entrepreneurship literature with empirical evidence from conflict-affected areas. The authors argue that better entrepreneurial framework conditions will enhance entrepreneurial success in conflict zones. This research work is important because it will add to our understanding of the influences of the entrepreneurial ecosystem on entrepreneurs who pursue an entrepreneurial career in conflict zones. This research will add to the existing body of knowledge, which seemingly lacks evidence from conflict zones. Furthermore, this research is important in the Kashmir context because this research will provide insights to stakeholders such as entrepreneurs, government agencies, entrepreneurship development agencies and NGOs, etc.Design/methodology/approachThe authors surveyed 400 entrepreneurs in the manufacturing, services and retail sectors in Kashmir through a questionnaire. The self-reported responses were used for assessment of entrepreneurial framework conditions and financial and non-financial performance. The data were analysed through the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to test the hypothesised relationships. The results were considerable.FindingsThe authors found that most Kashmiri entrepreneurs do not find the entrepreneurial framework conditions supportive of their business. Upon testing the hypothesis, they found a significant and positive impact of entrepreneurial finance, government policies and cultural and social norms on entrepreneurial success. The common belief that ease in market dynamics would positively impact success was negated in this case. They found a significant and negative impact of market dynamics on success. Furthermore, the physical, commercial and professional infrastructure and services showed insignificant results.Research limitations/implicationsThis research provides insights about the requirements of entrepreneurial framework conditions in a conflict zone for achieving successful results. The current study acknowledges the call of researchers to carry out quantitative studies in conflict zones.Practical implicationsThe findings of this research might prove to be beneficial to the entrepreneurs, policymakers, government agencies and other stakeholders. If taken into consideration while formulating the policies in favour of entrepreneurs in a conflict zone, the findings of this research are an added resource. The current research might be valuable to the Government of Kashmir in recognising the perception of entrepreneurs towards the initiatives or the policies drafted in the past.Originality/valueAs per the knowledge of researchers, no such study has been conducted in Kashmir vis-a-vis the variables studied. The study is original in terms of analysing the impact of the environment on the success of entrepreneurs in a conflict zone in Kashmir.

THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AUTONOMOUS REGION IN MUSLIM MINDANAO (ARMM) PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS FOR MORO NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT (MNLF) COMMUNITY IN MAGUINDANAO PROVINCE

This study aims to determine the ARMM programs and projects implementation to MNLF identified communities in the province of Maguindanao during the year periods of 2013 to 2017. Specifically, this study attempts to determine the programs and projects of ARMM to MNLF identified communities; how the implementing offices and agencies of ARMM implement these programs and projects to the MNLF-respondents; the extent of benefits do MNLF respondents have obtained from these programs and projects in terms of: (a) Livelihood (b) Health and (c) education; the problems encountered by the MNLF-respondents during the implementation of these programs and projects; and the prepared alternatives/solutions to these problems. This study further used the combination of “Quantitative and Qualitative” analysis of data. The respondents were the MNLF-Field Commanders and identified MNLF community leaders in Maguindanao Province. The Purposive Sampling was used because only One Hundred Fifty-Six (156) MNLF Commanders and Leaders under Prof. Nur Misuari were used as sample respondents. The findings show that there are serious problems that need to be addressed by the national government on the implementation of the MOU signed by the OIC-GPh-MNLF tripartite process structure to monitor the implementation of the 1996 Peace Agreement and the security, governance, economic activities, including the delivery of social services in the conflict-affected areas. Thus, the government specially, ARMM is tasked to formulate and oversee programs and projects implementation in the cities, provinces and municipalities to improve the lives of the Moros and MNLF combatants regardless of race, tribes and group or faction organization affiliation. Hence as concluded further, various socio-economic activities of the ARMM government found out failed or maybe failed again.
 
 Keywords: Implementation, Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), Programs and Projects, Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), Maguindanao Province

Resilience-Informed Positive Youth Development Programs in International Development

In countries affected by crisis and conflict, systems that support young people are often disrupted. Youth who are going through critical periods of physical, cognitive, and social–emotional development are especially affected by these disruptions. We examined positive youth development programming strategies that have been used in crisis and conflict-affected areas to build youth resilience, defined as a young person’s ability to manage risk (absorptive capacity), enhance assets and agency (adaptive capacity), and contribute to society (transformative capacity). We summarize key concepts of positive youth development and resilience and then examine how these have been interpreted and applied in youth development programming. We present 2 case studies of youth programs from the Philippines and the Democratic Republic of Congo that illustrate programming that integrates these concepts and discuss how resilience and positive youth development can intersect and reinforce one another. Using empirical findings from these crisis and conflict-affected settings, we illustrate how resilience-informed positive youth development programming builds youth and community assets and agency while increasing the absorptive, adaptive, and transformative resilience capacities of both youth and their communities to respond to shocks and stressors. We conclude with a discussion of relevant takeaways and program implications regarding the application of a resilience lens to positive youth development, particularly in areas affected by crisis or conflict.

An Unintended Legacy: The External Policy Responses of the USA and European Union to Conflict Minerals in Africa

Competition over environmental and natural resources characteristically lies at the heart of armed conflicts in Africa. It is also common knowledge that some companies dealing in products such as laptops, smart phones, and jewellery import minerals from conflict-affected areas, thereby indirectly fuelling conflicts in these areas or undermining human rights. For a continent endowed with natural resources including minerals, Africa has suffered the brunt of this predicament. This state of affairs has lent impetus to the adoption of several regulations geared towards curbing irresponsible business practices by companies relying on such minerals, the goal being, amongst others, to guarantee the protection of human rights. In May 2017, the European Union adopted regulations intended to stop the importation of conflict minerals in Europe, debatably making giant strides in the direction of the protection of human rights. These regulations are to come into force in 2021. However, can these regulations advance the much-desired goal of the protection of human rights in Africa on issues pertaining to conflict minerals? By analyzing the 2017 EU regulations in light of previous regulations of a similar nature, the paper concludes that the said regulations constitute a weak normative framework and could in fact have unintended consequences on the fundamental rights of civilians in natural resource-rich conflict areas of Africa.

Health research in the Syrian conflict: opportunities for equitable and multidisciplinary collaboration

There is considerable global momentum from Syrian researchers, policy makers and diaspora to address health, security and development challenges posed by almost a decade of armed conflict and complex geopolitics that has resulted in different areas of political control. However, research funders have been so far reluctant to invest in large-scale research programmes in severely conflict-affected areas such as northern Syria. This paper presents examples of collaborations and programmes that could change this through equitable partnerships between academic and operational humanitarian organizations involving local Syrian researchers—a tremendous way forward to capitalize and accelerate this global momentum.Several academic and humanitarian organizations have initiated collaborations to build new networks and partnerships for better research and policy engagement in Syria. The networks conducted two consecutive annual conferences in 2019 and 2020. Key messages from these conference include: (1) equitable partnerships between organizations and individual researchers must form the basis of conducting better research; (2) ensuring the inclusion of local Syrian researchers is crucial in the development of any viable partnership; (3) capacity strengthening in health research is urgently needed in Syria’s current phase of active conflict to inform, develop and implement strengthened and sustainable health systems in the post-conflict phase.

Factors associated with experiencing sexual violence among female gender-based violence survivors in conflict-afflicted eastern Ukraine

BackgroundSince 2014, over 1.6 million people have been forcibly displaced by the conflict in eastern Ukraine. In 2014, 8% of reproductive-aged women in Ukraine had ever experienced sexual violence, compared to 5% in 2007. This increase was driven by non-domestic sexual violence. Our study examined characteristics of women in eastern Ukraine receiving psychosocial services following sexual violence compared to survivors of other forms of gender-based violence.MethodsIntake data collected between February 2016 and June 2017 by psychosocial service providers in five conflict-affected areas of Ukraine from women, aged 15–49, (N = 8525), was analyzed. Descriptive analysis and covariate adjusted logistic and negative binomial regressions were used to identify socioeconomic, incident and access to services factors associated with having experienced sexual violence compared to other forms of violence.ResultsAmong this sample of survivors receiving psychosocial services, 2.6% (n = 220) reported experiencing sexual violence. A majority of sexual violence acts reported were committed by non-domestic perpetrators (61.4%); followed by intimate partners (25.9%). Almost half of sexual violence cases occurred at home (49.1%). Experiencing sexual violence was positively associated with being younger, single and internally displaced, and negatively with engaging in unpaid labor, such as childcare. Women who experienced sexual violence delayed seeking care by 4 days compared to other gender-based violence survivors. Sexual violence survivors were less likely than physical violence survivors to have reported the incident prior to receiving care (adjusted odds ratio = 0.39; 95% confidence interval = 0.28–0.54).ConclusionsNon-domestic and intimate partner sexual violence were both prevalent in our sample. Compared to survivors disclosing other types of gender-based violence, sexual violence survivors appear to face unique barriers to reporting and accessing timely care. Prevention and outreach programs tailored to the specific vulnerabilities, such as displacement status, and needs of sexual violence survivors in conflict settings are urgently needed.

Challenging the traceability of natural gold by combining geochemical methods: French Guiana example

Considering the high economic importance and worldwide distribution of gold, the ability to identify its provenance is critical and challenging to ensuring a responsible supply chain from deposit to consumer, especially within conflict-affected areas. Here we present an innovative approach to trace the provenance of natural gold from French Guiana through a combination of geochemical and statistical methods. This approach is divided in three steps and allows the identification of illicit gold, the certification of the declared gold origin coming from legal operators and, in some cases, the identification of unknown gold. French Guiana was chosen as a demonstration case of our approach because it is a well-known conflict-affected area where illegal mining is widespread. In the first step, we showed that the use of illegal Hg amalgamation can be easily revealed by looking the gold grain morphology with an optical microscope or by detecting the Hg with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy that allow direct detection on the field. In the second and principal step, we demonstrated that a declared provenance of gold can be certify with a high degree of confidence by measuring the Ag content of a gold grain population and by checking it against a database with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic. In the final step that allows the identification of the origin of unknown gold, we used (i) the content of minor elements (Cu and Hg), (ii) the identification of mineral inclusions and their relative proportions within samples and (iii) the trace element composition of natural gold grains determined by LA-ICP-MS and coupled with a permutational multivariate analysis of variance and a similarity percentage analysis. This method allows the identification of the provenance of 69% of the gold samples; the provenance of other gold populations (31%) cannot be identified because of their geological similarity with other groups. The traceability of natural gold can be guaranteeing with our innovative approach, in particular by certifying declared gold population provenance. Further challenges to be addressed will be the implementation of such approach in others conflict-affected regions to support the global supply chain of gold.

Distributed Power Sources to Improve the Decent Living Standard (DLS) in the Ethnic Minority Areas of Myanmar

Myanmar has been suffering from ethnic conflicts for approximately 70 years. The instability remains ongoing, and villagers in ceasefire areas are vulnerable. To ensure that no one is left behind, sustainable development in these areas should consider local needs. The objective of this study was to identify the living conditions required by local villagers such that they do not exacerbate conflicts. We interviewed stakeholders related to the peace process and rural electrification in Myanmar to identify the needs in conflict-affected areas. Needs were identified using the decent living standard (DLS) as the main analytical framework and energy justice as a complementary framework. The results show a strong local need for mobile phones and the importance of access to information provided by mobile phones and other dimensions of DLS, such as education and health care. For electrification options, off-grid solar products were found to be less likely to exacerbate conflicts compared to large-scale power plants. Historically, the latter has caused many issues related to energy justice.