Hungarian Conditions Research Articles

Hungary's accession to the EU: environmental requirements and strategies

The prospect of EU enlargement to include the countries of Central and Eastern Europe faces a range of difficult obstacles. In the field of the environment, not only must legislation be adopted at the national level by countries seeking membership but appropriate institutions and enforcement mechanisms must also be established. This paper considers current conditions in Hungary. It reports the results of a recent assessment of the extent to which Hungary complies with the conditions on the environment needed to ensure its accession to the EU. Given that there is still some way to go before these conditions are met, it also reviews the various approaches through which harmonization with EU policy requirements might take place. It concludes that as a minimum Hungary must match the standards of environmental protection currently applied by the southern member states of the EU. It also concludes that at present it seems that there is not a realistic chance of a much more ambitious environmental programme being introduced because of the prevailing socio-economic climate. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and ERP Environment

Fusarium Infection of Wheat Seeds in Hungary between 1970 and 1997

Under Hungarian conditions, head blight (caused by Fusarium spp.) means a risk of infection for wheat between flowering and harvest. The infection level and the damages of economic importance may be significant for both quantitative and qualitative aspects. Its qualitative damages must be noted because Fusarium species does not only attack plant germs, but they may also produce toxins harmful to the health of man and animals. Following the epidemics of head blight in 1970, the National Plant Protection Organization provided for a regular survey of the nation-wide spread of wheat seed infection. Out of the 27 years studied, epidemic spread of the disease occurred in 9 years. Spread of head blight on a large area was supported by the rainy weather during heading and flowering of the wheat, but it was also influenced by the plant protection techniques used. It is necessary to go on with the survey of Fusarium internal seed infection started in 1970, because seed-dressing and control management can be recommended for the farmers based on the adequate infection events. However, in addition to the establishment of Fusarium infection level determining the sowing value of seeds, it is also necessary to define the toxins produced by the pathogens together with their volume.

Correlations between two soil extractants and corn leaf potassium contents from Hungarian field trials

Corn (Zea mays L.) leaf weight, leaf potassium (K) content at the flowering stage, and ammonium lactate (AL)‐ and neutral normal ammonium acetate (NH4Ac)‐extractable K were determined in a network of 27‐year‐old long‐term Hungarian field trials ("OMTK trials") with different K fertilization rates on nine locations representing various agro‐ecological and soil conditions of the country. Corn leaf weights at the flowering stage were affected less by soil‐extractable K than by the different agro‐ecological conditions. Corn K contents, however, were much more affected by K rates than leaf weights. The additional effect of the higher K rate, however, was not significant. Leaf K contents were affected by site also. There was no significant correlation between corn leaf K content and leaf weight. Above 1.5% K leaf content, however, leaf weights did not increase. Corn leaf weight increased together with soil test values up to 150–160 mg kg‐1 soil‐extractable K. There was a poor linear correlation between soil‐extractable K and leaf weight (r = 0.40**). There was a significant quadratic polynomial correlation between soil‐extractable K and leaf K content (R = 0.60***). The lower limit of good K supply, indicated by leaf K content at flowering (1.5% K), was usually reached when the soil‐extractable K level reached 150 mg kg‐1. The most significant linear correlation was found between NH4Ac‐ and AL‐extractable K (r = 0.91***). Both the AL and NH4Ac methods identied the different soil K levels similarly. As a first attempt, new NH4Ac‐extractable K supply categories were established for Hungarian conditions. Soil and plant K analysis data proved to be useful tools in adapting the results from long‐term field trials for improved fertilizer recommendations.

Size distribution of ions in atmospheric aerosols

The aim of this paper is to present data about the concentration and size distribution of ions in atmospheric aerosol under slightly polluted urban conditions in Hungary. Concentration of inorganic cations (ammonium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium), inorganic anions (sulfate, nitrate, chloride, carbonate) and organic acids (oxalic, malonic, succinic, formic and acetic acid) for 8 particle size range between 0.0625 and 16 μm were determined. As was the case for ammonium, sulfate and nitrate, the organic acids were mostly found in the fine particle size range. Potassium and chloride were rather uniformly distributed between fine and coarse particles. Sodium, calcium, magnesium and carbonate were practically observed in the coarse mode. The results obtained for the summer and the winter half-year were also compared. The mass concentrations were recalculated in equivalents, and the ion balance was found to be reasonable in most cases. Measurement of the pH of the aerosol extracts indicates that the aerosol is acidic in the fine mode, but alkaline in the coarse particle size range.

Potential Market Opportunities in Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria

Central European economies are undergoing radical reforms changing from central planning to free market economies. If these changes are to be successful, there is a need for their govemments to liberalise legislation to allow privatisation to take place and to allow and encourage foreign investment in the countries. Potentially the most effective form of foreign investment is the participation of Western companies in the business of the country enabling development of the market and the local understanding of the methods of business in free market economies. Whether and to what extent this participation takes place depends on the macro-environmental climate and the specific market environments in the countries. This paper addresses both of these issues and is based on a twelve month study of marketing conditions in Hungary, Poland and Bulgaria. In the first part the macro changes taking place are explored and the overall attractiveness assessed by comparison with the published literature on the market entry strategies. The conclusion is that Hungary is the most attractive of the three countries concerned for Western company investment in terms of political stability, economic development and performance, cultural unity, and lower legal and geo-cultural similarity.

Correlation of ice load with large-scale and local meteorological conditions in Hungary

Conditional probability of icing in correlation with local weather elements, as well as with different macrocirculation types are investigated on the basis of 23 years of daily observations for two stations situated in the Pannonian Plain (Debrecen) and in mountainous region (Kékestetö, 1000 m above sea-level). Empirical histograms are calculated and a theoretical model of the distribution is elaborated. Ice is generally twice as frequent at night as during the day. Icing is 5–6 times as frequent on the top of the hill as on the plain, especially considering larger water-contents. Macrosynoptic conditions favourable for icing are essentially different in the two circumstances. At the higher altitude icing is more frequent in cyclonic situations. Considerable load is often accompanied with southwesterly, southerly currents. On the plain station however the anticyclonic situations are somewhat more frequently accompanied with ice formation. Wind speed is practically indifferent at the top of the hill, but on the plain ice formation prefers low wind speeds. These differences are in coincidence with the a priori information of the different nature of ice load. Namely, at the top of hill in-cloud icing is the predominant form, while on the plain fine rime and frozen precipitation represent the overwhelming majority of ice load events. No clear differences in probabilities of icing in any of the above relations appear, however, between the two perpendicular directions of measuring devices. From among the possible applications of the results, a local scenario on ice load changes assuming a 0.5 K global warming is presented.

Rural-urban differences in income level and in living conditions in Hungary

In 1990 Hungary underwent a revolutionary change of the economic, social and political system. The transition caused important short-term economic hardship. Rural areas suffer more from these hardships than urban areas, and eastern Hungary suffers more than western Hungary. Urban-rural and west-east differences in income level, unemployment, poverty, housing conditions, etc., are demonstrated on the basis of a national survey in May–June 1992. The possibilities for protecting rural areas and backward regions from pauperization are evaluated.

Elemental composition of atmospheric aerosol particles under different conditions in Hungary

Aerosol samples were collected simultaneously by means of Nuclepore filters at three sites with different pollution levels: in downtown Budapest, in suburban Budapest and in rural air in Hungary. The concentration of 18 elements with atomic numbers between 13 and 82 were determined in the samples by particle (proton) induced X-ray emission (PIXE) method. The concentrations obtained are discussed, and dry deposition rates calculated on the basis of transport model simulations are compared to the wet depositions measured. It is found that the concentration and enrichment factor of different elements increased generally from background to downtown and wet removal significantly controls the deposition of anthropogenic elements.

Fordulóponton a magyar területfejlesztési politika, avagy szem elől veszítjük-e a francia mintát?

Fordulóponton a magyar területfejlesztési politika, avagy szem elől veszítjük-e a francia mintát?

Climatic effects on the runoff conditions in Hungary

AbstractUsing runoff and climatic observations from 37 small watersheds in Hungary a regional climate‐runoff relationship has been established. This non‐linear relationship is a modification of Budiko's similar equation and can be used to estimate the effect of climate changes on long‐term average runoff. The degree of change in runoff depends not only on changes in precipitation and temperature, but also on the present climate characteristics. The regional relationship is verified only within a relatively narrow range of precipitation and temperature and this fact limits its use in climate impact assessment. Model calculations show that a relatively slight shift in climate, an increase in annual temperature by 0.5°C, and a decrease of annual rainfall by 0.08 mm d−1 may lead to a decrease of runoff by 25‐30 per cent in small watersheds of Hungary.

Elemental composition of aerosol particles under background conditions in hungary

Abstract The elemental composition of aerosol particles under regional background conditions is determined by using the PIXE method. The results of a sampling program carried out in 1988 and 1989 are presented. It is shown that sulfur and silicon have the highest concentrations indicating that the aerosol is partly of anthropogenic and partly of soil origin. The origin of particles is further discussed on the basis of enrichment factors and elemental ratios. The concentrations measured are compared to the concentrations calculated by a long-range transport model. Some other results of modeling are also mentioned.

Economic reform and political change in eastern Europe: a comparison of the Czechoslovak and Hungarian experiences

Economic reform - the introduction of elements of the market into a planned economy - has been the central political problem for socialist states for at least three decades. This thesis seeks to elucidate the nature of the problem through a reconsideration of the general theoretical issues, and through a comparative analysis of the practice of economic reform in two countries - Czechoslovakia and Hungary. In Part One, the arguments in favour of the use of the market in socialism are recapitulated, and the implications of various socialist economic models for political freedom, democracy, and the realisation of some concept of the 'social interest 1 are discussed. The case studies presented in Part Two address the practical political problem of introducing market-type reform into communist systems. In Czechoslovakia, the issue of economic reform contributed to a profound political crisis culminating in 1968. But it is argued, economic reform was not the only, or even the most important source of the crisis. In the different political conditions in Hungary, economic reform was embraced by the regime as a means of securing political stability and popular legitimacy. Political crisis was avoided, but at the costof compromise in the economic reform. The conclusion is that while full-scale democratisation of the political system may not be an inevitable concomitant of economic reform, profound changes in the style and instruments of communist rule are required.

CHILD RESCUE IN BUDAPEST, 1944–5

Unique conditions in Hungary during the Nazi Occupation in 1944 enabled a singular rescue operation for Jewish children in Budapest to be undertaken. A small group of Zionists in Hungary, particularly members of the various Zionist Youth movements, analysed their position in the autumn of 1944 and took the initiative to find ways to safeguard Jews inside Hungary. This initiative, taken by a marginal group in Hungarian Jewish life and helped by neutral diplomats, significantly affected the fate of thousands of Jews in Budapest, especially children

Social visions and social control: the evolution of medical thought in postwar Hungary.

After nearly two decades of rigid adherence to the Soviet model of social and economic development, Hungary initiated a series of reforms in the 1960s that emphasize decentralization and market economic mechanisms. Internal repression and surveillance have diminished concurrently. Shaped by these broader social trends, three explanations of disease causation have successively emerged in Hungary since World War II: social medicine, a lifestyle model, and a psychosocial model. Although each model attempts to offer the best explanation for prevailing patterns of morbidity and mortality, each also reflects an underlying world view and the political priorities that derive from it. Social medicine and the lifestyle model have served largely to consolidate the power of ruling elites. The psychosocial model, on the other hand, has the potential to challenge the social order. The current popularity of the lifestyle model seems rooted in a widespread cynicism about social change which in turn is a product of contemporary social conditions in Hungary.

Situation and Future Prospects of Agricultural Aviation in Hungary1

Agricultural aviation in Hungary has a 25‐year history and is supervised by the Aviation Service of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food. The structure of agricultural production, the size of farms and fields etc. give excellent conditions and background to agricultural aviation. During recent decades, there has been a constant increase in the number of machines and in the area of cultivated land. At present 120 groups using planes or helicopters are involved in this activity, and 5 million hectares are treated yearly. Helicopters have been used since 1970 and 40 % of the groups work with the Ka‐26 helicopter. Initially, most of the work aimed at fertilizer application, but recently spray application has become more important. At present 75 % of the total work done covers spraying. The average application rate for spraying is 40–501/ha. The types of aircraft used are AN‐2, M‐18, Ka‐26; of the fixed‐wing planes, the M‐l 8 is the best for Hungarian conditions. Replacement of helicopter types is very difficult. Hungarian agriculture needs further development of agricultural aviation; this does not now mean quantitative development, but rather an improvement of work quality and accuracy. For this purpose the development of agricultural equipment plays a very important role in the activity of the Aviation Service.

Problems of the Development of Hungarian Industry, 1900–1944

The revolution of 1848, by ending the system of serfdom, had created the basic conditions of Hungary's industrialization; however, since the revolution had remained incomplete and the War of Independence had been lost, the ensuing suppression by Austrian absolutism and the considerable feudal survivals proved a strong barrier to the way of social and economic progress. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy, a product of the Compromise of 1867, offered somewhat more favorable conditions for economic development. Nevertheless, the structure of the dual monarchy kept Hungary's industrialization within rather narrow limits: the absence of independent statehood and the existence of a common customs area with Austria exposed the Hungarian market to devastating competition from Austria's more advanced manufacturing industry; and since these circumstances helped to consolidate the political and economic power of the large landowners, the capital accumulating within the country served above all the capitalist development of agriculture. So towards the end of the nineteenth century, nearly half a century after the bourgeois revolution, Hungary was still a wholly agrarian country whose major exports were foodstuffs and agricultural produce. The rapid development of manufacturing industry began as late as the last decade of the nineteenth century and continued until the beginning of World War I, over a span of some twenty-five years.

Business Combinations and Economic Conditions in Hungary and Neighboring States

Business Combinations and Economic Conditions in Hungary and Neighboring States

Conditions in Hungary

Conditions in Hungary