Concrete Language Research Articles

Abstract or concrete language style? How chatbots of online travel agencies should apologise to customers

ABSTRACT Service failure is a common issue in the operations of online travel agencies (OTAs) because of the wide range of heterogeneous services being provided. Many OTAs have now started using chatbots for complaint management. This research investigates the most effective language style (abstract or concrete) for OTAs chatbots to apologize to the customer to gain forgiveness for service failure. Results of three experimental studies with 348, 452, and 470 sample sizes showed that the overall concrete language style of the OTAs chatbot apology was more effective in achieving customer forgiveness. Further, in case of minor (severe) service failure, an abstract (concrete) language style is more effective. Moreover, results showed that the customer's preferred chatbot apology language style was unaffected by the OTAs service type (hedonic vs utilitarian). Finally, results show that perceived firm sincerity and empathy mediate the relationship between OTAs chatbot apology language styles and customer forgiveness.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of abstract concept processing: An MEG study

Our current understanding of how linguistic concepts are represented and retrieved in the brain is largely based on studies using concrete language, and only few studies have focused on the neural correlates of abstract concepts. The role of the motor system, besides the classical language network, has been intensively discussed in action-related concrete concepts. To advance our understanding of spatiotemporal dynamics underlying abstract concept processing, our study investigated to what extent language and motor regions are engaged in the processing of abstract concepts vs. concrete concepts. We used concrete, metaphorical, and abstract phrases as stimuli, creating a graded continuum of abstractness. Neuromagnetic signals were recorded from 26 Chinese native speakers using a 306-channel whole-head magnetoencephalography (MEG) system. Cluster-based permutation F-tests were carried out on the amplitude of source waveform for individual language and motor regions of interest (ROIs) in the three consecutive time-windows (200–300, 300–400, and 400–500 ms). Results showed that, compared with concrete and metaphorical phrases, abstract phrases evoked significantly weaker activation in the left posterior part of superior temporal sulcus (STS) at 200–300 ms, and significantly stronger activation in the left anterior temporal pole (TP) at 300–400 ms. We found no significant differences in the involvement of motor ROIs across conditions. Our results suggest that concrete concept processing engages more the posterior STS in an earlier time window, while abstract concept processing relies more strongly on the anterior TP in a later time window. Results are discussed by revisiting the ATL (anterior temporal lobe)-hub hypothesis and the novel definition of concrete and abstract concepts.

Does language concreteness influence consumers’ perceived deception in online reviews?

PurposeAlthough online reviews have become a key source of information for consumer purchasing decisions, little is known about how the concreteness of language used in these reviews influences perceptions of deception. This study aims to address this important gap by drawing on psycholinguistic research and Language Expectancy Theory to examine how and when the concreteness of online reviews (abstract vs concrete) impacts consumers’ perceived deception.Design/methodology/approachTwo scenario-based experiments were conducted to examine how the concreteness of online reviews (abstract vs concrete) influences consumers’ perceptions of deception, considering the mediating role of psychological distance to online reviews and the moderating effects of Machiavellianism (Mach) and reviewer identity disclosure.FindingsOnline reviews that include concrete language lead to lower perceived deception by reducing consumers’ psychological distance from the review. For consumers with higher levels of Mach, online reviews written in abstract (vs concrete) language result in higher perceived deception via psychological distance, while for consumers with lower Mach, online reviews written in concrete (vs abstract) language result in higher perceived deception via psychological distance.Research limitations/implicationsTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is one of the first to highlight the relevance of linguistic style (i.e. concrete review vs abstract review) on consumers’ perceived deception toward online reviews in the context of e-commerce.Practical implicationsThe framework enables managers of online retailing platforms to identify the most effective strategies to decrease consumers’ perceived deception via the appropriate utilize of linguistic styles of online reviews.Originality/valueThis study contributes to both theory and practice by deepening knowledge of how and when the concreteness of online reviews (abstract vs concrete) affects consumers’ perceived deception and by helping managers of online retailing platforms make the most effective\\ strategies for reducing consumers’ perceived deception toward online reviews during online shopping.

Reducing interpretative ambiguity in an educational environment with ChatGPT

The study posits that both concrete and abstract words are crucial for effective communication, particularly in educational contexts where the interplay between these forms of language intersects with linguistic, cognitive, and social stratification theories. A key challenge is balancing the efficiency of abstract language in conveying complex concepts with the accessibility of concrete language, which enhances student comprehension. Generative languages, with their capacity to manipulate symbols, offer a way to navigate this challenge by facilitating the structured and systematic representation and exploration of abstract concepts within their contexts. The central research question was: “How can generative languages assist educational stakeholders in articulating their ideas and actions more clearly by identifying and refining abstract terms?” To explore this, a protocol in English was developed for ChatGPT-4, featuring structured guidelines and prompts aimed at helping users achieve specific educational goals. In a pilot study involving 13 participants, ChatGPT-4 provided feedback, suggested improvements, and guided users through text interactions. One of the authors observed the participants, took notes on their behavior, and conducted brief post-exercise discussions to gauge their experiences. After the session, participants were asked to reflect on their experience and share their thoughts via email. The process helped participants refine their responses from abstract to more concrete terms, enhancing clarity and engagement with educational content. The ChatGPT-4 protocol effectively bridges the gap between abstract pedagogical theories and practical classroom application, training teachers to use vivid descriptions, relatable scenarios, and tangible examples. This study illustrates how artificial intelligence can successfully integrate teaching principles and learning theories to enhance educational practices.

All words have consequences: Concrete versus abstract language in management response to hotel guest reviews

Hospitality managers increasingly respond to hotel guest reviews to achieve customer satisfaction and cultivate customer relationships. Conventional wisdom suggests that concrete language is more effective in customer service encounters. However, little is known whether, when and why abstract versus concrete management response is more effective in achieving customer satisfaction. We adopt a mixed-method approach with a big data study based on a sample of 1,253,668 reviews from 2306 hotels and two scenario-based laboratory experiments. We show that abstract (versus concrete) management response fosters greater customer satisfaction when it addresses positive (versus negative) reviews or is from a senior manager (versus junior staff). When responding to positive (versus negative) reviews or issued by a senior manager (versus junior staff), the abstract (versus concrete) response enhances customers’ perceived warmth (versus perceived competence). Our findings provide meaningful guidelines for the hospitality and tourism industry.

Conceptualization of Morphological Roots in Arabic and English: A Contrastive Analysis

This paper aimed to build a contrastive orientation of notions of morphological roots in Arabic and English. The basic question addressed in this paper is whether there exist common properties of the root in Arabic and English.Belonging to two different language families, the two languages’ morphological systems are at extremes, creating challenges for interested learners and researchers. The contrastive analysis method was adopted. This analysis could provide data about the similarities and differences of the root’s structure, which can be used to meet the current study’s goals.A general contrast of the morphological system of the two languages was provided, focusing on the structure of the entity of the root in those languages. The roots’ morphological properties were contrasted to reveal and identify differences and similarities between the two languages.Findings revealed that a root in Arabic is a general abstraction, whereas in English, it is a concrete language item. There were few instances of resemblance of morphological behavior.Exploring the similarities and differences between the two languages would provide important pedagogical implications. It could also highlight potential language learning and teaching difficulties.

Mobilize Is a Verb: The Use of Verbs and Concrete Language Is Associated With Authors' and Readers' Perceptions of a Text's Action Orientation and Persuasiveness.

In three studies, we investigated the role of linguistic features characterizing texts aiming to mobilize others. In Study 1 (N = 728), participants produced a leaflet either mobilizing others to engage in an action or expressing their thoughts about that action, and evaluated how action-oriented their text was. Mobilizing texts included more verbs and concrete words, and the presence of these linguistic characteristics was positively linked to participants' evaluations of their messages as action-oriented. In Studies 2 and 3 (N = 557 and N = 556), independent groups of participants evaluated texts produced in Study 1. Readers' perceptions of texts as action-oriented were associated with the same linguistic features as in Study 1 and further positively linked to perceived message effectiveness (Study 2) and behavioral intention (Study 3). The studies reveal how encoding and decoding of verbs and concrete words serve as distinct persuasive tools in calls to action.

Customers’ online service encounter satisfaction with chatbots: interaction effects of language style and decision-making journey stage

PurposeThis study aims to examine the interaction effects of chatbots’ language style and customers’ decision-making journey stage on customer’s service encounter satisfaction and the mediating role of customer perception of emotional support and informational support using the construal level theory and social support theory as conceptual frameworks.Design/methodology/approachThis study used a scenario-based experiment with a 2 (chatbot’s language style: abstract language vs concrete language) × 2 (decision-making journey stage: informational stage vs transactional stage) between-subjects design.FindingsFindings show that during the informational stage, chatbots that use abstract language style exert a strong influence on service encounter satisfaction through emotional support. During the transactional stage, chatbots that use concrete language style exert a strong impact on service encounter satisfaction through informational support.Practical implicationsFindings provide some suggestions for improving customer–chatbot interaction quality during online service encounters.Originality/valueThis study offers a novel perspective on customer interaction experience with chatbots by investigating the chatbot’s language styles at different decision-making journey stages.

Development of Cognitive Abilities of high School Students by means of Psychological Training

The main problem: the article examines the development of cognitive abilities of high school students by conducting a theoretical analysis of philosophical, pedagogical, psychological, scientific and methodological works and current directions of its development. Improving the educational process in secondary educational institutions and developing the cognitive abilities of high school students is an urgent problem. Therefore, the task arises of developing the thinking and activity of high school students while studying in secondary educational institutions, teaching them to use their knowledge and skills in new life situations. The implementation of these tasks makes it urgent to search for ways and forms of organizing the educational process, which will contribute to the formation of the skills to plan and organize the cognitive activity of high school students. Purpose: to substantiate the general logical coordinates and methods of reformatting various humanitarian paradigms used in action. Methods: ontological principle of logic with genetic content, method of transforming specific images of objects based on their abstract meaning, method of transition from abstract to concrete language, language of thinking of schematic images of thought and language of methodological theory. activities. Currently, such an update represents a transition to the methods and tools of active learning technology as a means of continuous development of science and school practice, the use of which in most cases helps to increase the interest and activity of adolescents. The results and their significance: logically substantiated universal abstract-concrete coordinates of the universal movement are presented. In relation to life and the world of activity, they can be defined by the coordinates: “standard of living - activity efficiency”, or “action efficiency - time”, or “result - costs”, or “quality - quantity” etc. Clarity of thinking is ensured by the logic of movement vectors descending from the real to the abstract, ascending from the abstract to the real, as well as their combination. The constant need for cognitive activity creates in students a feeling of cognitive satisfaction, seeing the result of curiosity, its planning and organization. This result teaches the teenager to actively seek new cognitive activities and gain experience in mastering the subject.

The Effects of Language Features and Accents on the Arousal of Psychological Reactance and Communication Outcomes

Guided by psychological reactance theory, we examined the effects of language features on arousing reactance and communication outcomes. Results of a 2 (controllingness; high/low) × 2 (concreteness; concrete/abstract) × 2 (restoration postscript; present/absent) × 3 (accent; Standard American English [SAE]/Indian [non-SAE]/text-based message) between-subjects design ( N = 1,099, studies 1 and 2), revealed high-controlling language increased freedom threat, was perceived as more explicit than low-controlling language. Concrete language was perceived as more demanding of attention, fair, and producing lesser freedom threat than abstract language. Furthermore, restoration postscripts reduced freedom threat and message explicitness, including differences in restoration postscripts for the non-SAE relative to the SAE accent. Compared to the non-SAE accent, the SAE accent was perceived as more fluent and less difficult to understand, yet elicited more anger, more negative cognitions, and was perceived as less competent (Study 2). The implications are discussed vis-à-vis social influence and intergroup communication.

Abstract or concrete? The effects of language style and service context on continuous usage intention for AI voice assistants

The unprecedented growth in voice assistants (VAs) provided with artificial intelligence (AI) challenges managers aiming to harness various new technologies to enhance the competitiveness of their products. This article thus investigates how VAs can more effectively improve the user experience by focusing on the attributes of service contexts, matching a utilitarian-dominant (hedonic-dominant) context with concrete (abstract) language in VA–human interactions. Through such matching, VA companies can potentially create a beneficial congruity effect, leading to more favorable evaluations. The results of three studies therefore suggest that users prefer VAs with abstract language in a hedonic-dominant service context, but that VAs with concrete language are more competitive in a utilitarian-dominant service context. Furthermore, the perception of processing fluency mediates this effect. Accordingly, these findings provide a better understanding of AI–human interactions and open a straightforward path for managers or technology providers to enhance users’ continuous usage intention.

Communicative potential of the means of non-verbal communication

This article provides a theoretical review of the communicative meaning of nonverbal means, analyzes examples from the texts of fiction. All kinds of nonverbal means (prosodics, kinesics, graphemics, takisics, proxemics, okulesics, sensorics) are found in Kazakh prose texts as an auxiliary means of language, and as a means of hidden expression of meaning, as well as to supplement the content of words or phrases missing in the syntactic construction of the sentence. The authors define the purpose of application of nonverbal means in the process of communication, it is established that nonverbal means applied in the course of a communicative act are subordinated to a specific purpose. In the texts of fiction both nonverbal and synonymous, polysemantic means and techniques expressing certain semantics coexist. On the analysis of concrete language examples their semantics, which is determined depending on the context or situation, is shown. It is proved that non-verbal means are most actively used in expressing internal feelings, psychological state of the characters.

Age-related differences in the interhemispheric asymmetry of local cortical responses to abstract and concrete verbs in children: a magnetic mismatch negativity study

BACKGROUND: The development of brain neural networks that support lexico-semantic processing in children remains a poorly understood topic in neuroscience. Meanwhile, investigations in adults have provided ample evidence regarding the brain circuits underpinning the processing of abstract and concrete semantics. These studies have shown that interhemispheric asymmetry in neural responses across modal and amodal cortical areas might be an important marker that helps in distinguishing these two types of semantics, with more left-lateralized activity patterns for abstract than concrete word comprehension. However, little is known about such distinctions in children; thus, addressing this gap was the goal of this study. AIM: This study aimed to investigate age-related differences in the lateralization of neural response patterns associated with the processing of abstract and concrete semantics in children. METHODS: This study employed magnetoencephalography and a mismatch negativity (MMN) paradigm in a group of 41 healthy children aged 5–13 years. The participants were passively exposed to the auditory series of abstract and concrete Russian verbs presented outside the focus of attention. Spatiotemporal patterns of the dynamics of neuromagnetic sources activity were reconstructed using minimum-norm estimate within predefined regions of interest: primary auditory cortex, primary motor cortex, and inferior frontal gyrus of both hemispheres. The magnitudes of MMN responses were further compared statistically between the two hemispheres within two age groups: younger (aged 5–9 years) and older (aged 10–13 years) children. RESULTS: Regionally specific differences were found in the lateralization of event-related MMN responses to concrete compared with abstract words in motor and inferior frontal cortical areas (paired permutation tests, p 0.05). Moreover, in the younger group (aged 5–9 years), responses to the abstract and pseudoword stimulus were left-lateralized, and this effect was most pronounced in the inferior frontal regions (45 and 47 Brodmann fields) of the left hemisphere. In the older group (aged 10–13 years), no pronounced left-lateralized response was observed in these areas. However, for the concrete hand action verb stimulus, different patterns of the interhemispheric asymmetry of the hand motor area responses were observed: the response in the younger group was right-lateralized, whereas in the older group, the response was bilateral. CONCLUSION: The present area- and hemisphere-specific dynamics of neuromagnetic responses in the motor cortex and Broca’s area might correlate with the age-related changes in neurocognitive strategies for the comprehension of abstract and concrete language.

Elements of the Functioning of the Universal vs. Relative Concept Antinomy in Translation

Recent research in the field of translation studies frequently frames issues related to the choice of translation strategies determined by several factors of an objective and subjective nature. Among the subjective factors of particular importance is the cognitive one, i.e., cultural, encyclopedic, and linguistic personality of the translator, since it is the translator who ensures the quality of intercultural communication and the degree of pragmatic, semantic and communicative transfer of the message from the original into the translation. At the heart of the researched topic is an attempt to examine, in a concrete pragmatic context, an antinomy that influences the choice of the translation strategy. This is the binomial constituted by the concepts of universal vs. relative and how they motivate the choice of the translation algorithm, especially of a literary text. The theoretical framework of the problem addressed is represented by the views Professor Eugeniu Coșeriu has about language, and about particular languages in a re-evaluation adapted to the translation process. A special value in this process is given to the primary universals of creativity, semanticity, otherness as well as to the secondary universals - historicity and materiality which are seen in the light of literary translation of languages belonging to different language families - Romance, Germanic, Slavic. In conclusion, we try to argue that there is no need, but it is rather beneficial to avoid categorical separation of conceptual and translation approaches, either from the perspective of universalism or relativism. The choice of translation strategy is always flexible, it is adapted to the concrete translation situation, to the national culture and to the rules and norms of functionality of concrete languages.

A Study of the English Translation of Positive Emotions from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor

Emotion is a complex and abstract experience shared by human beings, but it is often expressed in the form of conceptual metaphor which is pervasive in the concrete language. Drawing upon the theory of conceptual metaphor and emotion metaphors, this paper aims to study the translation of positive emotions in David Hawkes’ version of The Story of the Stone and the related daily expressions as the corpus. According to the theories, this paper categorizes the positive emotions metaphors into body metaphors, sensory metaphors, entity metaphors, and orientational metaphors to discuss the process of English translation and the metaphorical mechanism, analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and English expressions of positive emotions and their cultural, physiological, and psychological motives, and lastly attempts to summarize the translation strategies of emotional expressions. The analysis of metaphorical mechanisms reveals that the common physiological and psychological experiences of human beings and cultural exchanges give rise to similarities, while the unique cultural environments, antecedents, and historical development of each nation give rise to their distinctiveness. This paper concludes that translators need to make full use of their subjectivity, understand the surface and underlying meaning of the text, and establish a high level of mental compatibility between themselves, the readers, and the author.

The impact of online tax community advice on individual taxpayer decision making

In this study, we examine the impact of advice shared on an online tax community and taxpayer decision making. Online tax communities are linked to major tax preparation software and provide a way for taxpayers to ask unique questions and receive responses. While online communities are intended to facilitate the transmission of unbiased advice between individual taxpayers, the quality, content, and source of responses can greatly vary. Drawing on the predictions of expectancy violations theory (EVT), we investigate two facets of provided advice: response provider expertise and response language concreteness. Our results indicate that taxpayers report more conservatively (more aggressively) when presented with advice from a deemed tax expert if concrete language (abstract language) is used. Further, we find that taxpayers' perceived usefulness of the response mediates this relationship. Collectively, we contribute to EVT and provide evidence on the recognition and use of online tax community responses.

Examining the learning effects of concrete and abstract materials among university students using a two-dimensional approach.

The debate on using concrete versus abstract materials in learning mathematics has been longstanding. For decades, research has focused on the physical characteristics of materials when defining them as concrete or abstract. This study extends the field by proposing a two-dimensional classification, which defines materials as concrete or abstract based on the two dimensions of representation, namely object (i.e., appearance) and language (i.e., label). A total of 120 university students participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to learn the concept of modular arithmetic with one of four types of learning materials: concrete object labelled with concrete language, concrete object labelled with abstract language, abstract object labelled with concrete language and abstract object labelled with abstract language. They were also divided into high and low maths anxiety groups. Results showed that the students who learnt with abstract objects, regardless of the level of maths anxiety, outperformed their peers who learnt with concrete objects. However, for students with low maths anxiety only, those who learnt with materials labelled with abstract language showed better far-transfer performance compared with those who learnt with materials labelled with concrete language. The findings offer a new direction in the conceptualization of concrete and abstract learning materials by specifying the dimensions of representation.

Absynthe: Abstract Interpretation-Guided Synthesis

Synthesis tools have seen significant success in recent times. However, past approaches often require a complete and accurate embedding of the source language in the logic of the underlying solver, an approach difficult for industrial-grade languages. Other approaches couple the semantics of the source language with purpose-built synthesizers, necessarily tying the synthesis engine to a particular language model. In this paper, we propose Absynthe, an alternative approach based on user-defined abstract semantics that aims to be both lightweight and language agnostic, yet effective in guiding the search for programs. A synthesis goal in Absynthe is specified as an abstract specification in a lightweight user-defined abstract domain and concrete test cases. The synthesis engine is parameterized by the abstract semantics and independent of the source language. Absynthe validates candidate programs against test cases using the actual concrete language implementation to ensure correctness. We formalize the synthesis rules for Absynthe and describe how the key ideas are scaled-up in our implementation in Ruby. We evaluated Absynthe on SyGuS strings benchmark and found it competitive with other enumerative search solvers. Moreover, Absynthe's ability to combine abstract domains allows the user to move along a cost spectrum, i.e., expressive domains prune more programs but require more time. Finally, to verify Absynthe can act as a general purpose synthesis tool, we use Absynthe to synthesize Pandas data frame manipulating programs in Python using simple abstractions like types and column labels of a data frame. Absynthe reaches parity with AutoPandas, a deep learning based tool for the same benchmark suite. In summary, our results demonstrate Absynthe is a promising step forward towards a general-purpose approach to synthesis that may broaden the applicability of synthesis to more full-featured languages.

Suffixal borrowed lexical items and features of their transformation in modern European languages (on the material of modern terms)

This work is a scientific research, based on the comparison of different terminological branches, where the terminological units of the most influential foreign languages are presented. This approach is relevant in our time due to the globalization of the world economy. Because the globalization process is active, regardless of the attitude to it of some countries or some groups of the population. The descriptive method and elements of the structure-typological method are used in the work. The process of creation of modern legal and economic terms is studied synchronously; when the need arises to explain the origin of terms, to show the path taken by this or that term, the author turned to etymological dictionaries, i.e. the data of dichrony was obtained. Thus, the novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time in the formation of alternative words, which we are all used to and do not perceive them as such, described ways of adapting terminoelelements of classical origin in near-spoken and non-spoken Indo-European languages (Ukrainian, German, French, English). However, they underwent a difficult historical process of formation, being transformed into the hyphenated aphixi or medial parts of modern terms, for which the old Greek and Latin languages were their bosoms. The paper presents a detailed analysis of the dictionary definitions, in the structure of which the final terminological elements are highlighted. Suffixal borrowed lexemes of modern terms are considered in terms of their semantic analysis and morphology of the Latin language as the most common final elements in European languages. The hypothesis of complete or partial adaptation of the structural elements is confirmed and the ways and means of their penetration into the systems of various languages are considered. This article is also based on the deductive method and is an attempt to substantiate the study of language phenomena and their regularities through the singular to the riddle. There are no guesses, conjectures, notions, fantasies. The work is based on concrete language facts, formalized and synthesized into general conclusions, and interpreted into semantic models. In the future they can be used in information and speech languages and the systems that serve them. The new trends of Industry 4.0 and related technologies are impossible without the exchange of data put by people in an automated system. That is why we are creating in real time the future basis that defines the cultural identification of people.

Exploring the Multilingual Mastery of Chinese Native Speakers from the Perspective of Language Transfer Theory Take English and German as examples

Considering that the majority of Chinese language learners today have a certain level of proficiency in English, it is significant to conduct the research to explore the multilingual mastery of Chinese native speakers in the context of English as a second language. This paper explores the effect of native-based language competence on multilingual learners of Chinese by means of a summative scale questionnaire. This paper also explores the concrete language transfer of English as a source language through interviews and a specific analysis of compositions offered by six Chinese-English-German trilingual learners. The final conclusion is that when a native Chinese speaker learns a third language, the source language for language transfer will not be limited to Chinese. English as L2 has an impact on the learning and the use of vocabulary and grammar in L3, as well as on L3 writing, which both facilitates and hinders the learning and the use of L3. The influence of L2 on L3 is the most obvious at the intermediate level of L3 and learners with an advanced level of L3 are rarely affected by English. When L3 is an Indo-European language, it is more likely to be influenced by L2 English than by L1 Chinese.