High School Computer Science Research Articles

Equity in high school computer science: Beyond access

Little is known about the extent to which expansions of K-12 computer science (CS) have been equitable for students of different racial backgrounds and gender identities. Using longitudinal course-level data from all high schools in California between the 2003–2004 and 2018–2019 school years we find that 79% of high school students in California, including majorities of all racial groups, are enrolled in schools that offer CS, up from 45% in 2003. However, while male and female students are equally likely to attend schools that offer CS courses, CS courses represent a much smaller share of course enrollments for female students than for male students. Non-Asian students enroll in relatively few CS courses, and this is particularly true for Black, Hispanic, and Native American students. Race gaps in CS participation are to a substantial degree explicable in terms of access gaps, but gender gaps in CS participation are not. Different groups of students have access to CS teachers with similar observable qualifications, but CS teachers remain predominantly white and male. Consequently, white and male CS students are much more likely than other students to have same-race or same-gender instructors. Our findings and the implications we draw for practice will be of interest to administrators and policymakers who, over and above needing to ensure equitable access to CS courses for students, need to attend carefully to equity-related course participation and staffing considerations.

Exploring teachers' preconceptions of teaching machine learning in high school: A preliminary insight from Africa

The teaching of machine learning is now considered essential and relevant in schools globally. Despite the ongoing discourse and increased research in the emerging field, teachers' conceptions of machine learning remain under-researched. This study aims at filling the gap by describing the initial conceptions of teaching machine learning by 12 African in-service teachers. We detailed the result of a phenomenographic analysis of teachers' pre-conceptions on teaching machine learning in K-12 settings. Twelve high school (Grades 10–12) computer science teachers in some selected African countries were recruited for a semi-structured interview. Five categories emerged from the analysis of the semi-structured interviews as follows: supporting student technical knowledge, having knowledge of the concept, focusing on professional development practices, contextualizing teaching resources and tools, and sustainability for development goals. These involve the relevance of teaching machine learning, the pedagogical approaches, strategies, and sustainability relating to practical implementation in schools. The results suggest the need to train in-service teachers to use existing tools designed for introducing machine learning. The teachers should also be involved in the co-designing process of resources considering contextual factors and, significantly, the curriculum to integrate machine learning into mainstream education. Involving teachers in the development process would help contextualize machine learning, contributing to real impact and societal changes.

Computer Science Trends and Trade-offs in California High Schools

Purpose: We aim to better understand the curricular, staffing, and achievement trade-offs entailed by expansions of high-school computer science (CS) for students, schools, and school leaders. Methods: We use descriptive, correlational, and quasi-experimental methods to analyze statewide longitudinal course-, school-, and staff-level data from California, where CS course taking has expanded rapidly. Findings: We find that these rapid CS course expansions have not come at the expense of CS teachers’ observable qualifications (namely certification, education, or experience). Within-school course taking patterns over time suggest that CS enrollment growth has come at the expense of social studies, English/language arts (ELA), and arts courses, as well as from other miscellaneous electives. However, we find no evidence that increased enrollment of students in CS courses at a school has a significant effect on students’ math or ELA test scores. Implications: Flexible authorization requirements for CS teachers appear to have allowed school leaders to staff new CS courses with teachers whose observable qualifications are strong, though we do not observe teachers’ CS teaching skill. Increasing CS participation is unlikely to noticeably improve school-level student test scores, but administrators also do not need to be overly concerned that test scores will suffer. However, school leaders and policymakers should think carefully about what courses new CS courses will replace and whether such replacements are worthwhile.

Pedagogical support for professional self-determination of high school students in IT professions

Introduction. The formation of professional self-determination of high school students and the associated choice of vocational education is an urgent problem of the modern school. This paper examines the possibility of pedagogical support to solve this problem by the example of the formation of ideas about IT education and IT professions at a level sufficient for their conscious choice in Russia. The tools discussed are the school Computer Science course and, more broadly, teacher-led non-formal education in the field of computing.The aim of this article was to analyse the factors affecting the conscious choice of high school graduates of IT professions and types of professional IT education, and the possibilities of pedagogical support for the formation of this choice by means of informatics education, implemented by means of a modern information and educational environment.Methodology, methods and materials. A systematic approach was applied, i.e. not only school but also subsequent stages of professional development of students were analysed. The leading theoretical methods were the analysis of the knowledge system, generalisation, identification and resolution of contradictions in the process of self-determination of students in the IT profession. Empirical methods for collecting, analysing and interpreting empirical data were also employed. The analysis of academic publications, documents and statistical data was carried out.Results. It is shown that the main reasons for the low level of formation of the professional self-determination of high school students in the IT profession are the following factors: insufficient attention paid in the school Computer Science course to the technological aspects that underlie most of the IT professions; lack of awareness of labour functions in IT professions; lack of awareness of the content of training in various areas of higher IT education and the focus of these areas on specific IT professions; ignorance of the real demand for the country’s economy in various IT professions.The school course in Computer Science can become a system-forming beginning in the formation of professional self-determination of high school students in the IT profession, but in its current state, it does not fully fulfill this function. The reasons are the inability to provide everyone, who wants to study Computer Science in high school at an in-depth level, the neglect in this course of the technological aspects of computing that underlie most of the IT professions, and insufficient use of the information resources of the information and educational environment of modern non-formal education.One of the ways to solve this problem is to supplement the Computer Science course with a special pre-professional training module, which will purposefully acquaint students with IT professions, with information technologies that underlie these professions, as well as the types and the content of the most popular areas of professional IT education and their connections with IT professions. To implement such a module, in addition to traditional forms of education, distance and network learning can be used, including with the involvement of university teachers and employees of leading IT companies.Scientific novelty. For the first time, the problem of pedagogical support for the formation of professional self-determination of senior high school students in the IT profession has been investigated.Practical significance. The obtained results can become the basis for improving school informatics education for the full fulfillment of the task to develop the professional self-determination of students in the IT profession.

Exploring high school computer science course teachers’ instructional design processes for improving students’ “computational thinking” skills

The importance of developing individuals’ computational thinking (CT) skills has given rise to many practices and research and development initiatives. Although there is a considerable volume of research on improving students’ CT skills, remarkably little is known about teachers’ design work to improve students’ CT skills. This multiple case study aimed to explore high school computer science teachers’ instructional design (ID) process. Data were collected through interviews, lesson plans, and classroom observations from three K-12 cases. The results showed that teachers’ ID processes had both similarities; including the design steps, the analysis step predominance, and the interaction intensity between the stages, and differences; included the number of interactions and the connections within the stages. Moreover, teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning CT affected ID process.

Информатика на уровне среднего общего образования: основные подходы к реализации

The article considers the concepts of level and profile differentiation of content, issues of differentiation of the content of computer science training at the level of education in secondary school. The characteristic of the basic and profile level of computer science in high school is given; the potential of the school course in computer science in the development of thinking, the formation of a worldview and the improvement of the digital skills of a school graduate are revealed. The content of the school course in computer science is described in terms of its compliance with the main areas of the scientific field "Computer Science" and through digital technologies. Examples of the implementation of various options for teaching computer science in high school using the existing educational and methodological support are given.

Online Professional Development for High School Computer Science Teachers: Features That Support an Equity-Based Professional Learning Community

A grand challenge of the computer science (CS) for all education movement is the preparation of thousands of teachers with high quality, accessible professional development (PD) that has evidence of improving teacher knowledge and pedagogical practices necessary to support the learning needs of diverse groups of students. While regional PD programs can provide in-person learning opportunities, geographic and time constraints often inhibit participation. This article shares findings from an online PD program modified from the existing in-person exploring computer science PD program to provide teachers a facilitated online learning community model to support their first year teaching the course. The findings from this study have implications for future directions in the CS education field, indicating that this model of online PD, heavily based on shared experience among participants, can increase CS teachers’ confidence in adapting and delivering lessons designed to be engaging and accessible to all students.

Teacher Perceptions of Equity in High School Computer Science Classrooms

Effective and equitable CS teaching is contingent on teachers’ robust understanding of equity issues in CS classrooms. To this end, this study examined high school teachers’ perceptions of equity during their participation in a CS teacher certificate program over two years. The participants are from various disciplines and from schools that serve under-represented students. Using a qualitative approach, we conducted content analysis of the teachers’ written reflections and responses to semi-structured interviews. Based on the justice-centered framework, we analyzed the major themes that emerged from the content analysis. The findings provide insights into high school CS teachers’ understanding of equity, the strategies that teachers use to address equity issues, and how teachers interpret the causes of inequities in CS classrooms. This research presents frameworks for examining teachers’ conceptualizations of equity and can inform the implementation of future professional development programs for CS teachers.

Take space, make space: how students use computer science to disrupt and resist marginalization in schools

ABSTRACT Background and Context Overlaying Computer Science (CS) courses on top of inequitable schooling systems will not move us toward “CS for All.” This paper prioritizes the perspectives of minoritized students enrolled in high school CS classrooms across a large, urban school district in the Western United States, to help inform how CS can truly be for all. Objective This paper explores what student agency looks like while answering the research question “From the perspective of minoritized students historically underrepresented in computing, what makes a critical difference in their sense of agency in introductory CS high school classes?” Method Our research-practice partnership used qualitative data (including classroom observations, interviews, student artifacts, and video/photos) and surveys to surface the perspectives and visions of minoritized youth. Findings The research describes what student agency looks like as youth – who have had no prior CS learning experiences – use CS as a tool to resist marginalization and dehumanizing school contexts, while declaring their own “rightful presence” in CS classrooms. Implications Findings demonstrate the importance for CS curricula and pedagogy to center the lives of students in ways that are consequential for minoritized youth. This would support deeper engagement with content learning and student agency with computing.

Supporting making online: the role of artifact, teacher and peer interactions in crafting electronic textiles

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to report changes when a classroom-based makerspace moved from face-to-face to an online setting.Design/methodology/approachTo better understand changes in teaching maker activities, as they move from face-to-face to online contexts, the authors analyzed video and interview data from six weeks of an introductory computer science high school classroom (38 youth) that was implementing an electronic textiles unit, shifting to asynchronous online teaching and learning during the March 2020 state-wide school closure because of the pandemic. The authors analyzed field notes and videos of face-to-face and online interactions between the teacher and his students in learning to craft and code their electronic textiles projects.FindingsThe analysis revealed changes in the role of physical and code artifacts, in improvising teaching, and channels for communication between the teacher and students.Research limitations/implicationsThis study discusses the implications for future pedagogical design and research efforts, as the authors continue to engage youth and work toward designing equitable learning opportunities with maker activities online.Originality/valueIn maker activities such as electronic textiles, youth design, sew and program circuits to make personalized three-dimensional, textile artifacts. However, nearly all research on supporting and teaching making has been conducted in face-to-face settings.

STEAM Maker Education: Conceal/Reveal of Personal, Artistic and Computational Dimensions in High School Student Projects

Much of maker education’s expansion has focused on STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) learning, leaving out equally promising opportunities for integrating arts learning. In this paper we share findings from a project in which high school students created electronic-textiles-based art representing features of a community important to them as a part of an elective high school computer science class. We addressed the following research questions: 1) What kinds of personal and community meanings did students convey through their maker projects? 2) How did students engage with artistic dimensions in their projects? 3) How did coding interactive features support students’ artwork? Drawing on daily observations, pre/post interviews, and documentation of students’ artifacts (photographs of in-process designs, design notebooks, and artist statements), we developed four case studies of students as they made art representing their communities using electronic-textiles as their primary medium. Our findings reveal how making became a means of personal, artistic expression with quite literal layering of coded meanings, and how maker activities can integrate art. In the discussion we consider the opportunities for authentic artistic expression in maker education by distinguishing the difference between craft and art in a maker education context. We consider the ways in which these ideas have implications for equity, pedagogy, and future research.

The Association of High School Computer Science Content and Pedagogy with Students’ Success in College Computer Science

The number of computer science (CS) courses has been dramatically expanding in U.S. high schools (HS). In comparison with well-established courses in mathematics and science, little is known about how the decisions made by HS CS teachers regarding how and what to teach impact student performance later in introductory college CS courses. Drawing on a large sample of 2,871 introductory college CS students at 115 U.S. institutions who had taken a CS course in HS, we examined the topic coverage and prevailing instructional methods in the HS course and investigated how these experiences influenced student performance in college CS. Controlling for differences in student background, we find two predictors of higher grades in college CS: greater frequency of coding-related activities in HS (programming, debugging, studying algorithms) and lower frequency of “non-coding” computer use (e.g., data analysis, computer security). Interaction models revealed a more complex story. Coding-related activity more heavily benefited students who did not have coding help available at home. In the 28% of college CS courses in which instructors employed innovative pedagogies, students with higher ACT or SAT mathematics scores had a greater advantage than in traditionally taught courses. Finally, in the innovative college courses, students whose HS CS exams had typically included testing on vocabulary did worse than students whose exams had not included such tests.

Computer Science for Equity: Teacher Education, Agency, and Statewide Reform

This paper reports on a statewide “Computer Science for All” initiative in Oregon that aims to democratize high school computer science and broaden participation in an academic subject that is one of the most segregated disciplines nationwide, in terms of both race and gender. With no statewide policies to support computing instruction, Oregon’s legacy of computer science education has been marked by both low participation and by rates of underrepresented students falling well-below the already dismal national rates. The study outlined in this paper focuses on how teacher education can support educators in developing knowledge and agency, and impacting policies and practices that broaden participation in computing. In particular, this research seeks to understand two questions. First, how do teachers experience equity-focused professional development in preparation for teaching an introductory course in computer science? Second, this study queries, how do teachers understand their own agency in influencing policies and practices that broaden participation in their specific schools and classrooms? To answer these questions, this inquiry employed a mixed method approach, drawing from surveys, observations, and interview data of two cohorts of teachers who participated in the Exploring Computer Science professional development program. To show the variety of school contexts and situate computer science education in local and place-based policies and practices, three teacher case studies are presented that illustrate how individual teachers, in diverse geographic and demographic settings, are building inclusive computer science opportunities in their schools. The findings reveal that centering equity-focused teacher professional development supports teachers in formulating the confidence, knowledge and skills that lead to inclusive computer science instruction, computer science content, and equity-centered pedagogy. The findings also highlight how school reform in computer science requires not only technical and pedagogical supports and structures, but also a systemic rethinking and reworking of normative and political forces that are part of the fabric of schools. Based on these findings of teacher knowledge and agency, the paper concludes with a presentation of particular statewide policies and practices that are generative in broadening belief systems and expanding political capacity of computer science education to reach all students.

Letramento escolar: Interculturalidade e poder na produção de um artigo de opinião no ensino médio integrado

Este artigo apresenta uma reflexão sobre a produção escrita na Educação Básica, considerando língua e escrita como práticas sociais situadas (STREET, 2014; KLEIMAN; ASSIS, 2016). O objetivo proposto para o artigo é identificar se há “modelos culturais” de escrita, orientadores das produções dos alunos, e “dimensões escondidas” no processo de produção de um Artigo de Opinião em um contexto de formação profissional em Curso Técnico Integrado ao Ensino Médio em um Instituto Federal de Ciência e Tecnologia. Partimos de discussões de trabalhos sobre letramentos acadêmicos as quais trazem questões de interculturalidade, poder e identidade, que resultam em “dimensões escondidas” em processos de produção escrita de gêneros acadêmicos. Em termos metodológicos, trata-se de uma etnografia da linguagem (GARCEZ; SCHULZ, 2015) que analisou textos produzidos por 18 alunos, durante as aulas de Língua Portuguesa e Literatura Brasileira III na terceira série do Curso Técnico em Informática Integrado ao Ensino Médio. Os resultados evidenciaram que os alunos deixaram à mostra as suas percepções de mundo, articulando diálogos entre o modelo cultural em que estão inseridos, que Street (2014) reconhece como letramento vernacular, e o modelo cultural proposto pela escola. Nos textos, ocorreu um processo de produção de sentidos que indicializa a interculturalidade e a forma como esses alunos percebem as temáticas discutidas e como estas fazem parte de seu repertório e, por extensão, da sua vida. Foi possível identificar duas “dimensões escondidas”: a primeira relacionada ao tema, que pode favorecer autoria ou produção de um texto; e a segunda relacionada à interculturalidade e relações de poder negociadas e/ou articuladas por meio de vozes sociais trazidas dos textos de apoio.

Computer science in high school

Improving participation and diversity in computer science is an issue that continues to demand the attention of the educational research community, and providing better opportunities to high school...

Transitioning from introductory block-based and text-based environments to professional programming languages in high school computer science classrooms

Block-based programming languages are becoming increasingly common in introductory computer science classrooms across the K-12 spectrum. One justification for the use of block-based environments in formal educational settings is the idea that the concepts and practices developed using these introductory tools will prepare learners for future computer science learning opportunities. This view is built on the assumption that the attitudinal and conceptual learning gains made while working in the introductory block-based environments will transfer to conventional text-based programming languages. To test this hypothesis, this paper presents the results of a quasi-experimental classroom study in which programming novices spent five-week using either a block-based or text-based programming environment. After five weeks in the introductory tool, students transitioned to Java, a conventional text-based programming language. The study followed students for 10 weeks after the transition. Over the course of the 15-week study, attitudinal and conceptual assessments were administered and student-authored programs were collected. Conceptual learning, attitudinal shifts, and changes in programming practices were analyzed to evaluate how introductory modality impacted learners as they transitioned to a professional, text-based programming language. The findings from this study build on earlier work that found a difference in performance on content assessments after the introductory portion of the study (Weintrop & Wilensky, 2017a). This paper shows the difference in conceptual learning that emerged after five weeks between the block-based and text-based conditions fades after 10 weeks in Java. No differences in programming practices were found between the two conditions while working in Java. Likewise, differences in attitudinal measures that emerged after working in the introductory environments also faded after 10 weeks in Java, resulting in no difference between the conditions after 15 weeks. The contribution of this work is to advance our understanding of the benefits and limits of block-based programming tools in preparing students for future computer science learning. This paper presents the first quasi-experimental study of the transfer of knowledge between block-based and text-based environments in a high school setting. The lack of significant differences between the two introductory programming modalities after learners transition to professional programming languages is discussed along with the implications of these findings for computer science education researchers and educators, as well as for the broader community of researchers studying the role of technology in education.

Are Teachers and Schools Ready to Accept Computer Science as a Graduation Requirement?

Recent policies across the United States support rigorous high school computer science courses acting as flex credit courses. This allows the courses to count as graduation requirements in lieu of traditional mathematics or science courses. In this study, 457 teachers in high schools that had not yet adopted flex credit policies indicated school readiness and personal beliefs regarding counting computer science as a mathematics or science requirement. Tangible first-order barriers (e.g., appropriate curriculum) were greater hurdles than intrinsic second-order barriers (e.g., beliefs). Other notable findings included viewing computer science counting as a mathematics requirement more favorably than as a science requirement; science teachers being least positive about computer science as a core requirement; and school socioeconomic status and enrollment size not being correlated to perceptions.

Equitable Learning Environments in K-12 Computing

The current efforts to expand computer science (CS) education in K-12 schools, such as the “CS for All” initiative, highlight the need for all students to get an opportunity to study computing. However, as recent research has shown, diversity in computing at the K-12 level remains problematic, and additional research is needed to look at how computer science learning environments can impact minority student interest and retention in CS. In this article, we report results from an in-depth qualitative study of high school computer science teachers’ perspective on barriers to increasing diversity in their classes. Based on teachers’ experiences, we provide practical recommendations on how to encourage equitable learning environments in K-12 computer science courses.

Using computer programming activities and robots to teach generalization of a geometry concept

Computer science and math education researchers have long believed that a symbiotic relationship exists between their disciplines [7]. In fact, in its early days, computer science education programs were often co-located in a math department. Stenger et al. [13] developed an instructional treatment that uses computer programming as an explicit method for teaching abstraction and generalization in the STEM classroom. This instructional strategy uses computer programming to explore the essential characteristics of a mathematical concept and to push learners to advance in levels of abstraction. In this study, results are shown from a professional learning session using computer programming activities, mathematical arguments, and programming on an S2 robot to push middle and high school computer science, math, and science teachers (N=25) to improve their level of generalization over area expansion of a triangle with respect to the expansion of the sides of the triangle. The programming activities served as a laboratory to expose and explain what happened in the minds of learners as they explored and learned to generalize this geometry concept. The researchers used an initial genetic decomposition to evaluate the learner's level of abstraction. Follow up interviews were conducted with 6 participants. The analysis, using APOS as a framework, categorized mathematical behaviors at the Action, Process or Object level. The data demonstrated how computer programming activities influenced teachers' mental images and pushed them to higher levels of abstraction.

What is the Success of High School it Education? An Investigation into Higher Education Students’ Knowledge of Spreadsheet Applications

Teaching Computer Science in higher education is imperative, even though today’s students have been born into a world where technology is an essential part of everyday life. To efficiently master modern, business, technical and scientific knowledge and to proficiently produce quality results in a work environment it is crucial to have high level IT knowledge. In business, Excel is the lingua franca and so knowing how to aptly use spreadsheets is a must for our students. The primary objective of the authors was to examine the perceived and actual knowledge of spreadsheet applications of students entering higher education. Accordingly, a questionnaire and a practical assignment have been developed. In the questionnaire, students were asked to provide information concerning their previous IT studies and rate their knowledge of word processing, spreadsheets and database management. During the practical, students were asked to solve an Excel exercise taken from a high school Computer Science final exam at standard level. Out of the 666 registered students on our electronic education system (Neptun) at the beginning of the year, 557 took part in this survey, and following data cleansing and processing, 513 were considered in the results. Looking at the results of the practical, the most significant proportion of students, 142 of them have performed between 0-10%. A total of 260 students have achieved less than 20% performance and 434 people, which is nearly 85% of students have accomplished less than 40%. Compared to the results from the self-evaluation questionnaire it is very poignant that the actual scores differ quite significantly (in both directions) from the perceived knowledge of the students.
 JEL Classification: Q20