Comprehensive Conservation Plan Research Articles

Predicting habitat refugia of the medicinal plant Dolomiaea costus under two climate change scenarios

Assessing the impacts of climate change on the distribution of medicinally important and endangered species is critical for conservation planning. This study focuses on Dolomiaea costus (Falc.) Kasana & A.K. Pandey, a critically endangered and highly valuable medicinal plant found in the fragile climate of Pakistan. Using species distribution modelling (MaxEnt), we evaluated the current and future habitat suitability of D. costus under two climate change scenarios (SSP370 and SSP585) for the periods 2041–2070 and 2071–2100. Occurrence data were collected from field surveys and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), while bioclimatic data were sourced from Climatologies at High Resolution for the Earth’s Land Surface Areas (CHELSA). The MaxEnt model achieved a high mean AUC value of 0.967, indicating strong predictive accuracy. Suitable habitats for D. costus span approximately 99,871 Km2 across the western Himalayas, Karakoram, and Hindukush regions. Climate projections revealed that under SSP370, suitable areas decrease from 99,260 Km2 in 2041–2070 to 90,962.5 Km2 in 2071–2100, with high-suitability zones reducing from 13,024.5 Km2 to 11,490.5 Km2. In contrast, the SSP585 scenario showed a modest expansion of suitable habitat from 107,104 Km2 to 111,217.5 Km2, though high-suitability areas declined from 18,208 Km2 to 16,811 Km2. Precipitation-related variables, especially precipitation seasonality, were the most influential drivers of habitat suitability, contributing 64.3% to the model, followed by mean monthly precipitation of the driest quarter (18.8%) and precipitation of the wettest and driest months. Jackknife tests also confirmed their critical importance. These findings underscored the sensitivity of D. costus habitat to the intensity of climate change, particularly under severe warming conditions and highlighted the urgent need for a comprehensive conservation plan. A combination of strategies, including climate-smart conservation, habitat protection, species reintroduction, and cultivation in moderately to highly suitable habitats, is crucial to ensure the long-term survival of D. costus in Pakistan amidst the changing climate.

Immediate impacts of fire on koala movement in a fragmented landscape

Hazard reduction burns could pose a significant conservation challenge to threatened habitat specialists, such as koalas Phascolarctos cinereus. This study examines the immediate effects of a medium to hot hazard reduction burn on a small number of koalas occupying a fragmented agricultural area. Three koalas being monitored using GPS telemetry were inadvertently exposed to fire in a small strip of roadside vegetation in an agricultural landscape, providing an unexpected opportunity to assess their immediate responses to the fire. Nearly 81 % of available trees were burnt to some degree, with 31 % of tree foliage scorched up to 10.2 m above the ground. The koalas reduced their home range sizes by 20–54 % post-fire, where two avoided burnt areas while one remained within them. These findings highlight the importance of maintaining unburnt patches and corridors in fragmented landscapes and developing comprehensive conservation plans to mitigate the adverse effects of fire on koalas and other arboreal fauna.

Insights into artificial waterhole utilization patterns by elephants and rhinos: Lessons from a South African Nature Reserve.

Artificial water provisioning is a common practice in southern African nature reserves, where different game species exhibit preferences for specific waterhole types. The movement patterns and behaviour of elephants and rhinos are closely linked to water availability, with these mega-herbivores noticeably influencing the environment and other species they interact with at waterholes. Since there is limited research on this topic, understanding preferences for different types of artificial waterholes is crucial, particularly during periods of water scarcity. This knowledge enables reserve managers to effectively manage the numbers and types of waterholes. In this study, we investigate artificial waterhole selection and preferences by elephants and rhinos in the Olifants West Nature Reserve, South Africa. The study area featured various waterhole types, including earth dams, concrete pans, reservoirs, and troughs. By employing camera traps, we analysed visitation frequency, timing of visits, and factors influencing visit frequency. Our findings revealed distinct preferences for specific waterhole types among different social groupings of the study species. Breeding herds of elephants predominantly utilized reservoirs and occasionally visited troughs, while bachelor herds favoured earth dams. Black rhinos showed a preference for earth dams, whereas white rhinos selected troughs and earth dams, with bachelor groups favouring troughs and female rhinos favouring earth dams. The outcomes of this study have significant implications for the development of comprehensive conservation plans in areas where these species reside, and for potential release sites.

From decay analysis to conservation plan of post-Vatican II religious architecture: Research on the Church of the Holy Family by Paolo Portoghesi in Italy

After the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) religious architecture represented a pivotal era of transformation within the Catholic Church. This liturgical reform aimed to deepen the engagement of worshippers in the liturgy, fostering a more direct connection between the congregation and the celebrant. Architects responded by radically reimagining the design and aesthetics of sacred spaces and embracing innovative materials and construction techniques such as reinforced concrete. This shift enabled the creation of bold, symbolic structures characterized by simple geometric forms, fluid spaces, and enhanced transparency, utilizing natural light to evoke sacred atmospheres. An outstanding example of this architectural paradigm is the Church of the Holy Family in Salerno, Italy, designed by Paolo Portoghesi and Vittorio Gigliotti, starting in 1968. Built entirely in reinforced concrete, this church embodies the fusion of technical innovation with spiritual exploration, typifying ecclesiastical postmodernism. Despite their architectural significance, many postconciliar churches face challenges today, including insufficient conservation efforts and inadequate community recognition. This research focuses on the Church of the Holy Family in Salerno, investigating its evolution, technological advancements, and conservation needs. A comprehensive Conservation Plan is proposed to safeguard this architectural heritage, integrating analyses of degradation and restoration interventions. By addressing these aspects, this study aims to ensure the preservation of this postconciliar religious architecture within contemporary urban and social contexts.

Partitioning genetic structure of a subterranean rodent at multiple spatial scales: accounting for isolation by barriers, distance, and environment

ContextUnderstanding genetic structure at multiple spatial scales and identifying drivers of genetic isolation are important for developing comprehensive conservation plans including for grassland conservation efforts. However, few studies account for multiple genetic isolation processes nor partition genetic variance among these processes.ObjectivesWe assess key processes that can create spatial genetic patterns including isolation by barrier (IBB), isolation by distance (IBD), and isolation by environment (IBE) for a widespread pocket gopher species (Geomys bursarius) and a spatially restricted subspecies (Geomys bursarius illinoensis). We further partition genetic variation to each isolating effect and identify genetic variation that was shared between processes.MethodsWe used seven microsatellites to determine spatial genetic clustering and identify environmental factors impacting genetic similarities. Then, we used redundancy analysis to partition variance explained by IBB, IBD, and IBE.ResultsMajor rivers including the Mississippi River acted as barriers and explained the most genetic variation across the species. In contrast, IBD explained the most genetic variation for G. b. illinoensis. Gophers had genetic associations to soil sand percent and soil color, but IBE uniquely explained a small amount of genetic structure for G. bursarius, with additional variation shared with other isolating processes.ConclusionsGopher genetic structure resulted from barriers, distance, and environmental factors at the species range as well as for a subspecies’ region, but the relative amount of genetic variance assigned to unique isolating processes differed between scales. Delineation of conservation units should consider major rivers as natural boundaries, and finer-scale management should identify and protect areas close to source populations with similar soil friability. Our study exemplifies how analyzing gene flow at rangewide and regional scales can aid managers in developing localized strategies that fit within broader conservation units.

GENETIC DISTANCE REVEALS SYNONYMY AND NEW FISH SPECIES IN BALIKESİR STREAMS, TÜRKİYE

The Mediterranean-Aegean region play a significant role in the context of conserving biodiversity. The protection of endemic and local species becomes attainable only with a thorough understanding of their biology. Specifically, aquatic species dwelling in inland waters may be more vulnerable due to the irregular composition of their habitats, characterized by natural barriers. It becomes imperative to initiate the conservation process by identifying the fauna and flora of ecosystems, thereby facilitating the development of comprehensive conservation plans. In this context, the primary objective of the present study is to identify freshwater fish species inhabiting Madra and Havran Streams in Balıkesir, Türkiye using the DNA barcoding method. The procedure involves DNA isolation through the Chelex protocol, followed by the amplification of the mitochondrial CO1 region using various primer combinations. The results obtained from the gene sequences of 29 individuals in total provide valuable information on species diversity, genetic relationships, and variations. This research emphasizes the importance of DNA barcoding as a valuable tool for species identification, genetic exploration, and conservation plans. The acquired outcomes establish a foundation for the effective management of aquatic biodiversity, particularly within these vulnerable ecosystems.

Habitat-dependent avian diversity in the agri-industrial zone of Jhajjar, Haryana, India

The study was performed to evaluate the habitat-dependent avian diversity in the southern region of Haryana from March 2021 to March 2023. The study aimed to identify avian species diversity in three habitats (agrifields, human settlement, and industrial zone) along with diversity indices and relative diversity. A total of 5037 birds belonging to 17 orders, 41 families, and 88 species were investigated with Simpson’s diversity index of 0.973 and Shannon– Wiener index of 4.04. Analysis of threat status revealed 38 species with stable population trends, 19 increasing, 20 decreasing, and 11 species having unknown trends. Out of 88 species, the IUCN status of two species Aquila nipalensis and Psittacula eupatria was endangered and near threatened, respectively; the rest 86 belonged to the least concern category. Of the total, 81% of species were residential, 10 were winter migratory, and 7 were summer migratory. Among the three habitats, agrifields were the most diverse, followed by human settlement and industrial zone. Diversified assemblages of birds suggested the region as a suitable habitat for both resident and migratory birds. This study highlights the need for more regular investigations to assess yearly avian diversity and possible threats to design comprehensive conservation plans.

Crop wild relatives in Lebanon: mapping the distribution of Poaceae and Fabaceae priority taxa for conservation planning

Lebanon is a part of the Fertile Crescent recognized for its agrobiodiversity wealth in terms of both cultivated plants and crop wild relatives (CWR) diversity. Within the context of climate change and its adverse effect on agrobiodiversity, conservation of CWRs in Lebanon is essential to prevent the loss of potentially useful genetic diversity and to facilitate their use in crop breeding. To establish a comprehensive conservation plan for Lebanese CWR belonging to Poaceae and Fabaceae, in this study we prioritized 16 taxa based on their value for world security and local economy, gene pool (primary and secondary) and genome type (A, B and D for Triticum genera). Georeferenced occurrence data of populations belonging to the prioritized taxa list were retrieved from different sources and imported into QGIS to visualize by mapping their distribution in-situ and ex-situ on the Lebanese territory, highlighting sites with highest density per genus and sites characterised by the highest taxa richness. The analysis allowed to identify Lebanese areas that still need further surveying actions (mainly the south-west parts of the country) and showed that priority taxa had different distribution pattern independently from genus. Bekaa and Baalbak governorates were evaluated to include sites represented with highest taxa richness, which makes them preliminary contenders to be included within in-situ conservation actions. This study provided a foundation for further research into the conservation planning of crop wild relatives belonging to Poaceae and Fabaceae in Lebanon by identifying areas with highest taxa richness.

A systematic review of threats, conservation, and management measures for tree species of the family Rosaceae in Europe

Climate change is only continuing to advance, and so its effects are continuing to balloon. Within that, Rosaceae trees, with immense economic and ecological importance, are being variably impacted depending on their usability and niche association. Furthermore, genetic-based conservation is growing in popularity due to its ability to more accurately tailor conservation response plans. Because of this, it is important to understand where consensus lies among Rosaceae conservation research and to build starting points for conservation organizations and forest managers regarding Rosaceae preservation and restoration. In this review we aim to assess the consensus among 253 papers from 2001 to 2021 regarding threats, conservation, and management of wild and cultivated Rosaceae trees with wild populations in Europe. Through meta-analysis and thorough review to identify common themes, we identify varying levels of consensus. The most agreement lies in that environmental threats have largely genetic impacts, and that conservation should focus on more passive measures which ensure that future harm is mitigated and minimized. Therefore, continuing to understand the state of Rosaceae genetics and population connectivity will allow for the most comprehensive conservation and management plans to be developed in the coming years.

Patterns of floristic inventory and plant collections in Myanmar

Myanmar is one of the most biodiverse countries in the Asia–Pacific region due to a wide range of climatic and environmental heterogeneity. Floristic diversity in Myanmar is largely unknown, resulting in a lack of comprehensive conservation plans. We developed a database of higher plants in Myanmar derived from herbarium specimens and literature sources, and analyzed patterns of diversity inventories and collection inconsistencies, aiming to provide a baseline floristic data of Myanmar and act as a guide for future research efforts. We collected 1,329,354 records of 16,218 taxa. Results show that the collection densities at the township level was variable, with 5% of townships having no floristic collections. No ecoregion had an average collection density of greater than 1 specimen/km2 and the lowest collection density was found in the Kayah-Karen Montane Rainforests, which covered 8% of Myanmar's total area. The highest sampling densities were found in Mandalay Region, Chin State, and Yangon Region. Despite floristic collections over the past three centuries, knowledge of the distribution of the vast majority of plant taxa remained limited, particularly for gymnosperms, pteridophytes, and bryophytes. More botanical surveys and further analyses are needed to better describe Myanmar's floristic diversity. An important strategy to promote knowledge of the biodiversity patterns in Myanmar is to improve the collection and digitalization of specimens and to strengthen cooperation among countries.

Problemas y soluciones de conservación en las colecciones privadas: intervención en la colección propia del artista vasco Nestor Basterretxea

This research presents a comprehensive conservation plan for the private and own collection of the Basque artist Nestor Basterretxea. The works are stored in his farmhouse, which lacks climate controls and storage system. For the planning of a comprehensive conservation proposal for the collection, the limited resources of a particular must be taken into account and the proposals must be adapted to the real possibilities of the space, guaranteeing the conservation of the collection. During the storage process, different approaches on how to treat the artworks emerged during the development of the conservation plan, especially marked by exhibitions in museums and galleries. The need for curative conservation interventions or restoration treatments is decided according to the criteria of restoration in contemporary art.

Morphological and genetic concordance of cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii) diversification from western North America

The cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii (Richardson, 1836)) is one of the most widely distributed species of freshwater fish in western North America. Occupying a diverse range of habitats, they exhibit significant phenotypic variability that is often recognized by intraspecific taxonomy. Recent molecular phylogenies have described phylogenetic diversification across cutthroat trout populations, but no study has provided a range-wide morphological comparison of taxonomic divisions. In this study, we used linear- and geometric-based morphometrics to determine if phylogenetic and subspecies divisions correspond to morphological variation in cutthroat trout, using replicate populations from throughout the geographic range of the species. Our data indicate significant morphological divergence of intraspecific categories in some, but not all, cutthroat trout subspecies. We also compare morphological distance measures with distance measures of mtDNA sequence divergence. DNA sequence divergence was positively correlated with morphological distance measures, indicating that morphologically more similar subspecies have lower sequence divergence in comparison to morphologically distant subspecies. Given these results, integrating both approaches to describing intraspecific variation may be necessary for developing a comprehensive conservation plan in wide-ranging species.

Habitat Characterization of Juvenile Atlantic Tarpon (Megalops atlanticus) in Isle of Youth, Cuba

Tarpon is considered a ‘Vulnerable’ species by IUCN but is also a highly prized recreational species. It is reportedly abundant in Cuba and may be threatened by high levels of fishing pressure. However, the current knowledge about Tarpon habitat characteristics and ecology in Cuba is very poor, which limit any attempt for its management and conservation. Here we summarize abiotic characteristics of juvenile Tarpon habitats in Lanier Swamp, Isle of Youth, Cuba, which is a RAMSAR site and Faunal Refuge. Three locations in Lanier Swamp were sampled for juvenile Tarpon presence during 2015-2017: Colony Lagoon (CL), Punta Francés Lagoon (PFL) and San Pedro (SP) river system. Abiotic characteristics were sampled from these same sites in January 2017. The smallest Tarpon (~150 mm fork length (FL, n= 22) occurred at CL, characterized by shallower waters with extreme salinities (0.6 and 50.8), less connection with the sea, and more protection from sunlight. In contrast, larger juvenile Tarpon (~630 mm FL, n= 20) were captured at SP, the location with the greatest connectivity to the ocean and greatest depth (~353 cm). The main results suggest that water depth, salinity, sunlight exposure and spatial dimensions are important habitat characteristics. Additionally, this study demonstrates the importance of coastal mangroves as juvenile Tarpon habitat and highlights the potential of using Tarpon as an umbrella species with broader conservation benefits. This study is an important first step to understanding Tarpon habitat use patterns in Cuba and developing a comprehensive conservation plan.

Conservation Planning Guidelines and Design of Melaka Heritage Shophouses

Melaka shophouses are now threatened by urban development which involves the conversion of the image and the changing of the urban fabric. The aim of this study was to clarify conservation issues in Melaka and to review building design and its influence which involves the aspect of site and facade typology. However, the focus should not only be on the building facade but should also take into consideration the environmental factors that lead to building defects. 7his problem identified could be overcome by comprehensive conservation planning and design study guidelines in order to (come up with) detailed articulations for conservation guidelines of Melaka Shophouse.

Distribution of mammal functional diversity in the Neotropical realm: Influence of land-use and extinction risk.

Functional diversity represents a measure of diversity that incorporates the role of species in an ecosystem, and therefore its dynamics and resilience. Assessing its drivers and spatial variation represents an important step forward in our understanding of functional ecosystem dynamics and it is also necessary to achieve a comprehensive conservation planning. In this paper, we assessed mammal functional diversity for the 218 ecoregions within the Neotropical realm. We evaluated the overall influence and spatial variation of species richness, ecoregion extent, intervention and species at risk on functional diversity. Using ordinary least squares and geographically weighted regression modeling approaches, we found that intervened areas and threatened and non-threatened species are the most influential overall drivers of functional diversity. However, we also detected that these variables do not operate equally across scales. Our local analyses indicated both that the variation explained and local coefficients vary spatially depending on the ecoregion and major habitat type. As estimates of functional diversity are based on current distribution of all mammals, negative influence of intervened areas and positive influence of non-threatened species may reflect a potential degradation of functional processes for some ecosystems. Most generally, the negative influence of intervention together with the influence of threatened species indicates that some areas are currently more susceptible to functional diversity loss. Our results help to pinpoint key areas requiring urgent conservation action to reduce natural land-cover loss and areas where threatened species play influential roles on ecosystem functioning.

Nonvolant Mammal Megadiversity and Conservation Issues in a Threatened Central Amazonian Hotspot in Brazil

Amazonia National Park is located in southwestern Pará State in central Amazonia. The 10,707 km2 park is one of the largest protected areas in Brazil and is covered with pristine forests, but the region is threatened by dam construction projects. An incomplete mammal biodiversity inventory was conducted in the area during the late 1970s. Here, we present results of sampling from 7,295 live-trap nights, 6,000 pitfall-trap nights, more than 1,200 km of walking transect censuses, and approximately 3,500 camera-trap days, all conducted between 2012 and 2014. These sampling efforts generated a list of 86 known species of nonvolant mammals, making the park the single most species-rich area for nonvolant mammals both in the Amazon Basin and in the Neotropics as a whole. Amazonia National Park is a megadiverse site, as is indicated by its mammalian richness, which includes 15 threatened mammal species and 5 to 12 new species of small mammals. As such, it merits being a high-conservation priority and should be an important focus of Brazilian authorities’ and the international scientific community’s conservation efforts. A comprehensive conservation plan is urgently needed, especially given the ecological threats posed by dam construction.

Logging Activity Adversely Impacts Primate Diversity and Density in the Kwabre Rainforest of Ghana

Knowledge on the impacts of logging activity on inhabitant primate species in Kwabre Rainforest, Ghana, is vital for the development of a comprehensive conservation and management plan. With this background, primate density and diversity were recorded along line transects in logged and unlogged areas (strata) to assess the impact of logging activity on these parameters. Six distinct primate species were confirmed including Roloway monkey (Cercopithecus roloway, listed as endangered in the IUCN List of Threatened Species), white-naped mangabey (Cercocebus lunulatus, vulnerable), and Geoffroy’s black-and-white colobus (Colobus vellerosus, vulnerable). There was a significant difference (Mann-WhitneyUtest:U=36.0,p<0.01) in primate encounter rates between the logged and unlogged strata with higher species diversity in unlogged stratum (H=2.91) compared to the logged stratum (H=1.44). Regression analysis indicated a significant effect (r2=0.945,p<0.01) of logging on primate encounter rates. Our results suggest that logging activity can alter composition of primate communities. One option to forestall further forest degradation and its adverse effects on primates would be to grant the Kwabre Rainforest protected area status under Ghanaian law and manage it under an integrated conservation plan that includes neighbouring Ankasa Conservation Area in Ghana and Tanoé Forest in Cote d’Ivoire.

MtDNA Analysis Suggests Local Origin of Pelagic-Stage Juvenile Green Turtles Collected in Japanese Coastal Waters

Understanding the distribution range across the life history of endangered animals is crucial for effective conservation and management planning. However, endangered migratory green turtles with straight carapace lengths (SCLs) of <35 cm have been rarely observed in the northwestern Pacific. Information on wild green turtles with an SCL of <35 cm in this region is therefore scarce. Historically, four individuals with an SCL of <35 cm from the Japanese coasts and an oceanic area in Japan have been reported. From 2011 to 2013, we collected nine turtles with an SCL of <35 cm from Japanese coasts and coastal waters. We reviewed the existing literature and compiled records of newly collected individuals and their mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid haplotypes. The combined total of 13 turtles had SCLs ranging from 6.2 to 28.0 cm. Molecular analyses of nine newly collected turtles indicated that most individuals had hatched at green turtle nesting sites on the Ogasawara Islands and islands in the Ryukyu Archipelago. These results suggest that early juvenile green turtles inhabit Japanese waters, and some turtles with an SCL of <35 cm appear to have remained in Japanese waters after leaving their natal beaches in Japan without drifting with the prevailing oceanic currents to central north or eastern Pacific regions. Although the sample size in the present study was small, this is a first step in constructing comprehensive conservation and management plans for green turtles in the northwestern Pacific.

Learning from conservation planning for the U.S. National Wildlife Refuges.

The U.S. National Wildlife Refuge System has nearly completed its first round of unit-level, comprehensive conservation plans (CCPs) and will soon begin required revisions. Laws and policies governing refuge planning emphasize ecological integrity, landscape-scale conservation, and adaptive management. We evaluated 185 CCPs completed during 2005-2011, which cover 324 of 555 national wildlife refuges. We reviewed CCP prescriptions addressing 5 common conservation issues (habitat and game, nongame, imperiled, and invasive species) and 3 specialized topics (landscape-scale conservation, climate change, and environmental quality). Common conservation issues received prescriptions in >90% of CCPs. Specialized topics received more variable treatment. Prescriptions for aquatic connectivity, water quantity, and climate-change impacts increased over the study period. Except for climate change, direct actions were the most common type of management prescription, followed by plans or studies. Most CCPs stated a commitment to adaptive management and prescribed monitoring for common conservation objectives; other aspects of planning for adaptive management were often lacking, despite strong support for adaptive management in the conservation planning literature. To better address refuge-specific threats, we recommend that revised plans explicitly match identified refuge issues with prescriptions, particularly for under-represented concerns such as novel pests and pathogens. We recommend incorporating triggers into monitoring frameworks and specifying actions that will occur when threshold values are reached to improve support for adaptive management. Revised CCPs should better reflect work that refuges already undertake to extend conservation objectives beyond their borders and better engage with regional conservation efforts to continue this work. More thorough landscape-scale threat assessments and explicit prioritization of planned actions would further improve conservation effectiveness. Excellent examples of all recommended practices exist within the CCPs we examined; sharing best planning practices would improve planning efficiency within the refuge system.

Habitat Re-Creation (Ecological Restoration) as a Strategy for Conserving Insect Communities in Highly Fragmented Landscapes.

Because of their vast diversity, measured by both numbers of species as well as life history traits, insects defy comprehensive conservation planning. Thus, almost all insect conservation efforts target individual species. However, serious insect conservation requires goals that are set at the faunal level and conservation success requires strategies that conserve intact communities. This task is complicated in agricultural landscapes by high levels of habitat fragmentation and isolation. In many regions, once widespread insect communities are now functionally trapped on islands of ecosystem remnants and subject to a variety of stressors associated with isolation, small population sizes and artificial population fragmentation. In fragmented landscapes ecological restoration can be an effective strategy for reducing localized insect extinction rates, but insects are seldom included in restoration design criteria. It is possible to incorporate a few simple conservation criteria into restoration designs that enhance impacts to entire insect communities. Restoration can be used as a strategy to address fragmentation threats to isolated insect communities if insect communities are incorporated at the onset of restoration planning. Fully incorporating insect communities into restoration designs may increase the cost of restoration two- to three-fold, but the benefits to biodiversity conservation and the ecological services provided by intact insect communities justify the cost.