Components Of Red Ginseng Research Articles

Metabolomic analysis of the impact of red ginseng on equine physiology.

Red ginseng (RG), a traditional herbal remedy, has garnered attention owing to its diverse health benefits resulting from its complex composition. However, extensive research is needed to substantiate the efficacy of RG and understand the underlying mechanisms supporting these benefits. This study aimed to identify potential biomarkers and investigate the impact of RG on related metabolic pathways in horse plasma using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based metabolomics. Ten horses were divided into control and RG groups, with the latter administered RG at a dose of 600 mg⋅kg-1⋅day-1 for 3 weeks. Subsequently, the plasma samples were collected and analyzed using LC-MS. Multivariate statistical analysis, volcano plots, and feature-based molecular networking were employed. The analysis identified 16 metabolites that substantially decreased and 21 metabolites that substantially increased following RG consumption. Among the identified metabolites were oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, and ginsenoside Rb1, which are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as lipid species that influence sphingolipid and glycerophospholipid metabolism. Additionally, potential biomarkers, including major RG components, demonstrated distinct group clustering in principal component analysis and partial least squares-discriminant analysis, indicating their utility in assessing the physiological effects of RG consumption. This study contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the effects of RG on health.

Aqueous preparation of arginyl-fructosyl-glucose (a maltose-arginine AC) and determination of Amadori compounds (ACs) in red ginseng by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS)

Amadori compounds (ACs) are key Maillard intermediates in various foods after thermal processing, and are also important non-saponin components in red ginseng. Currently, due to the difficulty in obtaining AC standards, the determination of multiple ACs is limited and far from optimal. In this study, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated. A green synthetic method was developed for arginyl-fructosyl-glucose (AFG), the major AC in red ginseng with potential health benefits. The UPLC-MS/MS method was then applied in identification and quantification of ACs in red ginseng samples, which showed for the first time that 12 other ACs also exist in red ginseng in addition to AFG and arginyl-fructose (total 98.88 % of all ACs). Contents of AFG and arginyl-fructose in whole red ginseng were 36.23 and 10.80 mg/g dry weight, respectively. Raw ginseng can be steamed and then dried whole to obtain whole red ginseng, or sliced before drying to obtain sliced red ginseng. Slicing before drying was found to reduce ACs content. Results of the present study will help to reveal the biological functions of red ginseng and related products associated with ACs and promote the standardization of red ginseng manufacture.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Reduces Hyper-Vasoconstriction Induced by High Glucose and Endothelial Dysfunction in Rat Aorta.

Acute hyperglycemia induces oxidative damage and inflammation, leading to vascular dysfunction. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) is a major component of red ginseng with anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we investigated the beneficial effects and the underlying mechanisms of Rb1 on hypercontraction induced by high glucose (HG) and endothelial dysfunction (ED). The isometric tension of aortic rings was measured by myography. The rings were treated with NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) to induce chemical destruction of the endothelium, and Rb1 was added after HG induction. The agonist-induced vasoconstriction was significantly higher in the aortic rings treated with L-NAME + HG50 than in those treated with HG50 or L-NAME (p = 0.011) alone. Rb1 significantly reduced the hypercontraction in the aortic rings treated with L-NAME + HG50 (p = 0.004). The ATP-sensitive K+ channel (KATP) blocker glibenclamide tended to increase the Rb1-associated reduction in the agonist-induced vasoconstriction in the rings treated with L-NAME + HG50. The effect of Rb1 in the aortic rings treated with L-NAME + HG50 resulted from a decrease in extracellular Ca2+ influx through the receptor-operated Ca2+ channel (ROCC, 10-6-10-4 M CaCl2, p < 0.001; 10-3-2.5 × 10-3 M CaCl2, p = 0.001) and the voltage-gated Ca2+ channel (VGCC, 10-6 M CaCl2, p = 0.003; 10-5-10-2 M CaCl2, p < 0.001), whereas Rb1 did not interfere with Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In conclusion, we found that Rb1 reduced hyper-vasoconstriction induced by HG and ED by inhibiting the ROCC and the VGCC, and possibly by activating the KATP in rat aorta. This study provides further evidence that Rb1 could be developed as a therapeutic target for ED in diabetes.

Alleviation of D-gal-induced senile liver injury by Rg3, a signature component of red ginseng.

To investigate the mechanism by which ginsenoside Rg3 regulates oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation through NF/KB pathway to delay mouse liver injury. This work randomized Balbc mice as four groups: Normal, D-gal, Rg3-L, Rg3-H. Paraffin-embedded liver tissue sections were prepared, later, BAX/BCL-2 protein expression was observed by HE, Sirius red, TUNEL and immunofluorescence to detect apoptotic injury and α-SMA/TGF-β protein expression to detect fibrosis, and liver inflammation-related protein NF-KB was detected. HE and TUNEL staining showed that Rg3 reduced necrotic cells and fibrosis in liver-injured mice, Rg3 increased anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-18 and reduced TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 expression. Conclusion: Ginsenoside Rg3 can effectively antagonize D-gal's role in mouse liver injury, and its mechanism may be associated with regulating inflammatory pathway by Rg.

Rg3-enriched red ginseng extracts enhance apoptosis in CoCl2-stimulated breast cancer cells by suppressing autophagy

BackgroundGinsenoside Rg3, a primary bioactive component of red ginseng, has anti-cancer effects. However, the effects of Rg3-enriched ginseng extract (Rg3RGE) on apoptosis and autophagy in breast cancer have not yet been investigated. In the present study, we explored the anti-tumor effects of Rg3RGE on breast cancer cells stimulated CoCl2, a mimetic of the chronic hypoxic response, and determined the operative mechanisms of action. MethodsThe inhibitory mechanisms of Rg3RGE on breast cancer cells, such as apoptosis, autophagy and ROS levels, were detected both in vitro. To determine the anti-cancer effects of Rg3RGE in vivo, the cancer xenograft model was used. ResultsRg3RGE suppressed CoCl2-induced spheroid formation and cell viability in 3D culture of breast cancer cells. Rg3RGE promoted apoptosis by increasing cleaved caspase 3 and cleaved PARP and decreasing Bcl2 under the hypoxia mimetic conditions. Further, we identified that Rg3RGE promoted apoptosis by inhibiting lysosomal degradation of autophagosome contents in CoCl2-induced autophagy. We further identified that Rg3RGE-induced apoptotic cell death and autophagy inhibition was mediated by increased intracellular ROS levels. Similarly, in the in vivo xenograft model, Rg3RGE induced apoptosis and inhibited cell proliferation and autophagy. ConclusionRg3RGE-stimulated ROS production promotes apoptosis and inhibits protective autophagy under hypoxic conditions. Autophagosome accumulation is critical to the apoptotic effects of Rg3RGE. The in vivo findings also demonstrate that Rg3RGE inhibits breast cancer cell growth, suggesting that Rg3RGE has potential as potential as a putative breast cancer therapeutic.

Structural-Activity Relationship of Rare Ginsenosides from Red Ginseng in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease.

Rare ginsenosides are the major components of red ginseng. However, there has been little research into the relationship between the structure of ginsenosides and their anti-inflammatory activity. In this work, BV-2 cells induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or nigericin, the anti-inflammatory activity of eight rare ginsenosides, and the target proteins expression of AD were compared. In addition, the Morris water maze test, HE staining, thioflavins staining, and urine metabonomics were used to evaluate the effect of Rh4 on AD mice. Our results showed that their configuration influences the anti-inflammatory activity of ginsenosides. Ginsenosides Rk1, Rg5, Rk3, and Rh4 have significant anti-inflammatory activity compared to ginsenosides S-Rh1, R-Rh1, S-Rg3, and R-Rg3. Ginsenosides S-Rh1 and S-Rg3 have more pronounced anti-inflammatory activity than ginsenosides R-Rh1 and R-Rg3, respectively. Furthermore, the two pairs of stereoisomeric ginsenosides can significantly reduce the level of NLRP3, caspase-1, and ASC in BV-2 cells. Interestingly, Rh4 can improve the learning ability of AD mice, improve cognitive impairment, reduce hippocampal neuronal apoptosis and Aβ deposition, and regulate AD-related pathways such as the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the sphingolipid metabolism. Our findings conclude that rare ginsenosides with a double bond have more anti-inflammatory activity than those without, and 20(S)-ginsenosides have more excellent anti-inflammatory activity than 20(R)-ginsenosides.

Biodistribution and pharmacokinetic evaluation of Korean Red Ginseng components using radioisotopes in a rat model

BackgroundAlthough many studies have evaluated the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) components (Rg1, Rb1, Rg3, Rd, etc.), few have examined the in vivo pharmacokinetics of the radiolabeled components. This study investigated the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides and their metabolite compound K (CK), 20(s)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), and 20(s)-protopanaxatriol (PPT) using radioisotopes in rat oral administration. MethodsSprague-Dawley rats were dosed orally once with 10 mg/kg of the tritium(3H) radiolabeled samples, and then the blood was collected from the tail vein after 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 96, and 168 h. Radioactivity in the organs, feces, urine, and carcass was determined using a liquid scintillation counter (LSC) and a bio-imaging analyzer system (BAS). Results and conclusionAfter oral administration, as the 3H-labeled ginsenosides were converted to metabolites, Cmax and half-life increased, and Tmax decreased. Interestingly, Rb1 and CK showed similar values, and after a single oral administration of components, the cumulative excretion ratio of urine and feces was 88.9%–92.4%. Although most KRG components were excreted within 96–168 h of administration, small amounts of components were detected in almost all tissues and mainly distributed to the liver except for the digestive tract when observed through autoradiography. This study demonstrated that KRG components were distributed to various organs in the rats. Further studies could be conducted to prove the bioavailability and transmission of KRG components to confirm the mechanism of KRG efficacy.

Studies on Bioactive Components of Red Ginseng by UHPLC-MS and Its Effect on Lipid Metabolism of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

ObjectivesRed ginseng is a processed product of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, which is one of the widely used medicinal and edible herbs for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Ginsenosides are its main pharmacologically active ingredient. This study aims to clarify the material basis of total ginsenosides of red ginseng (RGW) and verify the activity of RGW in treating lipid metabolism disorders caused by T2DM.MethodsAn ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS) technology was applied to quantitatively analyze RGW. A T2DM rat model was established to verify the activity of RGW in treating lipid metabolism disorders caused by diabetes. First, the changes in diabetes-related parameters were observed, then the biochemical parameters of the rat serum and liver were measured, and finally, the pathological sections of the rat liver were observed, and the content of short-chain fatty acids in stools was measured. The in vitro activity of RGW was verified by fatty degenerated HepG2 cells.ResultsA total of 10 ginsenosides were identified and quantitatively analyzed in RGW. Experimental results demonstrated that RGW can improve lipid metabolism disorders. RGW significantly reduced the fasting blood glucose and TG and TC levels in T2DM rats, and hepatic steatosis was significantly ameliorated. In vitro experiments by RGW treatment also significantly attenuated lipid deposition in HepG2 cells. RGW upregulated the content of 5 short-chain fatty acids in rat stools, which are related to lipid oxidation and liver gluconeogenesis.ConclusionThe total RGW were quantitatively analyzed by UHPLC-MS, and its effect on lipid metabolism of T2DM was studied. The experiment demonstrated that red ginseng can regulate lipid metabolism and improve lipid deposition, which provides a promising development for red ginseng as a functional food.

Panaxytriol upregulates CYP3A4 expression based on the interaction of PXR, CAR, HSP90α, and RXRα

BackgroundCytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is one of the most important drug-metabolizing enzymes in the human body, mainly existing in the liver, small intestine, and kidney. Panaxytriol is one of the key active components in red ginseng and Shenmai injection. Our previous study demonstrated that panaxytriol regulates CYP3A4 expression mainly by activating pregnancy X receptor (PXR). At a high concentration of panaxytriol (80 μM), the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) is also involved in the upregulation of CYP3A4. PurposeThis study investigated how the cofactors heat shock protein 90 alpha (HSP90α) and retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRα) interact with PXR and CAR to participate in the regulation of CYP3A4 by panaxytriol from the perspective of the PXR and CAR interaction. MethodsThe mRNA and protein expressions of PXR, CAR, CYP3A4, RXRα, and HSP90α in HepG2 cells and Huh-7 cells were detected by quantitative PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. The binding levels of PXR and CAR to RXRα and HSP90α were determined by co-immunoprecipitation analysis. The nuclear translocation of PXR and RXRα into HepG2 cells and human (hCAR)-silenced HepG2 cells were measured by immunofluorescence. ResultsIn HepG2 cells and Huh-7 cells, panaxytriol (10–80 μM) upregulated CYP3A4 expression in a concentration-dependent manner by decreasing PXR binding to HSP90α and increasing PXR binding to RXRα. When hCAR was silenced, panaxytriol further enhanced CYP3A4 expression by strengthening PXR binding to RXRα, but it had no significant effect on the binding level of PXR and HSP90α. Additionally, at the high concentration of 80 μM panaxytriol, CAR binding to HSP90α was weakened while binding to RXRα was enhanced. ConclusionPanaxytriol can upregulate CYP3A4 expression by promoting PXR dissociation from HSP90α and enhancing PXR binding to RXRα in HepG2 cells and Huh-7 cells. At high concentrations of panaxytriol, CAR also participates in the induction of CYP3A4 through a similar mechanism. However, in general, CAR antagonizes PXR binding to RXRα, thereby attenuating the upregulation of CYP3A4 by panaxytriol.

Red ginseng polysaccharide alleviates cytotoxicity and promotes anti-inflammatory activity of ginsenosides

Although Ginsenosides are a major physiological component of red ginseng (RG), some isolated ginsenosides are known to have cytotoxic activity. This study was intended to reduce cytotoxicity and promote anti-inflammatory activity of ginsenosides by mixing the crude ginsenosides (RG-CG) and polysaccharides (RG-CP). RG-CG-CM, fractionated from RG-CG, not only had higher anti-inflammatory activity than that of RG-CG at 100 μg/mL, but also showed increased cytotoxicity, while RG-CP-4P and RG-CP-8P, fractionated from RG-CP, showed no anti-inflammatory activity and cytotoxicity. To reduce the cytotoxicity without affecting the high anti-inflammatory activity of RG-CG-CM, RG-CG-CM and RG-CP-4P were mixed in a ratio of 2:8. The anti-inflammatory activity was significantly increased at a concentration of 75 μg/mL, while no cytotoxicity was observed. A combination of RG-CP and RG-CG effectively reduced the cytotoxicity and enhanced the anti-inflammatory activity of RG-CG, specifically RG-CG-CM fraction, providing scope for its industrial application.

A novel strategy for the discovery and validation of allergic component and its action mechanism in Red Ginseng

Red ginseng (a processed product of ginseng) is a famous herbal medicine or healthcare product widely used in Asia. However, there are many reports about anaphylactoid reaction of red ginseng. This study aims to establish a novel strategy for discovering and validating allergic component and its action mechanism in red ginseng. Firstly, RBL-2H3 cell degranulation experiment was performed by real-time cell analysis (RTCA) system and β-hexosaminase release test to illustrate the anaphylactoid reaction induced by red ginseng. Then, combined with ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole/time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MS) analysis, the main components of red ginseng for inducing degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells was explored. Furthermore, the compounds with the parent nucleus structure of allergic component were studied to figure out whether they could induce RBL-2H3 cell degranulation, and the relationship between the structures of compounds and degranulation was further investigated. Finally, the underlying mechanism of allergic components was explored based on network toxicology and molecular docking method, which was further verified by western blotting analysis. Our findings demonstrated that red ginseng extract could induce degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells, and ginsenoside Ro (an oleanane-type triterpene saponin), was confirmed to be the main allergic component. Meanwhile, both ginsenoside Ro (Ro) and other oleanane-type triterpene saponins could induce degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells, and the compound with disaccharide chain on C3 position had the strongest activity of degranulation. And their mechanism of inducing degranulation of RBL-2H3 cells involved in PI3K-Akt pathway. The results would provide a reference for the quality control and evaluation of safety of herb medicines or healthcare products containing oleanane-type triterpenoid saponins. Our method offers a novel strategy for screening allergic components in red ginseng and promoting further study of safety evaluation of red ginseng.

Ginsenoside Absorption Rate and Extent Enhancement of Black Ginseng (CJ EnerG) over Red Ginseng in Healthy Adults.

Red ginseng (RG) and black ginseng (BG, CJ EnerG) were prepared from fresh ginseng using one and nine cycles of steaming and drying, respectively. This process reduces the molecular weight (MW) of ginsenoside-active compounds in ginseng by removing sugar moieties from their dammaranes. We compared the pharmacokinetic characteristics of ginsenosides between BG comprising mainly low-MW ginsenosides (Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, and Rh1) and RG that predominantly contains high-MW ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, and Rg1). The safety profiles and tolerability were also studied using a randomized, double-blind, single-dose, crossover clinical trial. A combination of Rb1, Rg1, and Rg3, well-known representative and functional RG components, exhibited a 1 h faster absorption rate (Tmax) and 58% higher exposure (24 h area under the concentration–time curve, AUC24) in BG than in RG. Furthermore, the combination of Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1, the major and most efficient components in BG, displayed 824% higher absorption (AUC24) in BG than in RG. The total ginsenoside showed a 5 h rapid intestinal absorption (Tmax) and 79% greater systemic exposure (AUC24) in BG than in RG. No clinically significant findings were observed in terms of safety or tolerability. Thus, BG extract was more effective than RG extract.

Therapeutic effects of non-saponin fraction with rich polysaccharide from Korean red ginseng on aging and Alzheimer's disease

Biological aging provokes morbidity and several functional declines, causing older adults more susceptible to a variety of diseases than younger adults. In particular, aging is a major risk factor contributing to non-communicable diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an aging-related neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by cognitive deficits and the formation of amyloid plaques formed by the accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. Non-saponin fraction with rich polysaccharide (NFP) from red ginseng, the largest fraction of the components of red ginseng, perform many biological activities. However, it has not been clarified whether the NFP from Korean red ginseng (KRG) has beneficial effects in the aging and AD. First, proteomics analysis was performed in aged brain to identify the effect of NFP on protein changes, and we confirmed that NFP induced changes in proteins related to the neuroprotective- and neurogenic-effects. Next, we investigated (1) the effects of NFP on AD pathologies, such as Aβ deposition, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, mitochondrial dysfunction, and impaired adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN), in 5XFAD transgenic mouse model of AD using immunostaining; (2) the effect of NFP on Aβ-mediated mitochondrial respiration deficiency in HT22 mouse hippocampal neuronal cells (HT22) using Seahorse XFp analysis; (3) the effect of NFP on cell proliferation using WST-1 analysis; and (4) the effect of NFP on Aβ-induced cognitive dysfunction in 5XFAD mouse model of AD using Y-maze test. Histological analysis indicated that NFP significantly alleviated the accumulation of Aβ, neuroinflammation, neuronal loss, and mitochondrial dysfunction in the subiculum of 5XFAD mouse model of AD. In addition, NFP treatment ameliorated mitochondrial deficits in Aβ-treated HT22 cells. Moreover, NFP treatment significantly increased the AHN and neuritogenesis of neural stem cells in both healthy and AD brains. Furthermore, NFP significantly increased cell proliferation in the HT22 cells. Finally, NFP administration significantly enhanced and restored the cognitive function of healthy and AD mice, respectively. Taken together, NFP treatment demonstrated changes in proteins involved in central nervous system organization/maintenance in aged brain and ameliorates AD pathology. Collectively, our findings suggest that NFP from KRG could be a potential therapeutic candidate for aging and AD treatments.

A Systems Biological Approach to Understanding the Mechanisms Underlying the Therapeutic Potential of Red Ginseng Supplements against Metabolic Diseases.

Red ginseng has been widely used in health-promoting supplements in Asia and is becoming increasingly popular in Western countries. However, its therapeutic mechanisms against most diseases have not been clearly elucidated. The aim of the present study was to provide the biological mechanisms of red ginseng against various metabolic diseases. We used a systems biological approach to comprehensively identify the component-target and target-pathway networks in order to explore the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic potential of red ginseng against metabolic diseases. Of the 23 components of red ginseng with target, 5 components were linked with 37 target molecules. Systematic analysis of the constructed networks revealed that these 37 targets were mainly involved in 9 signaling pathways relating to immune cell differentiation and vascular health. These results successfully explained the mechanisms underlying the efficiency of red ginseng for metabolic diseases, such as menopausal symptoms in women, blood circulation, diabetes mellitus, and hyperlipidemia.

A 12-week, randomized, double-blind study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of liver function after using fermented ginseng powder (GBCK25).

BackgroundRecently, clinical research has suggested that red ginseng components play a role in liver protection and combating fatigue. However, fermented ginseng has not been analyzed for liver-protective or anti-fatigue effects.ObjectiveThis study evaluates the positive effects of fermented ginseng powder (GBCK25) on liver function.MethodsNinety participants with elevated alanine aminotransferase levels (35 ≤ ALT ≤1 05 IU/L) were randomized to one of three groups. The participants were treated with GBCK25 tablets at a dose of 500 mg/day (high dose), 125 mg/day (low dose), or placebo group daily for 12 weeks. The primary outcomes included changes in ALT and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) levels. The secondary outcomes included changes in aspartate amino-transferase (AST), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), multidimensional fatigue scale, lipid profile, and antioxidant markers.ResultsIn male subjects, after 12 weeks of low-dose GBCK25 (125 mg) supplementation, the GGT (P = 0.036) and hs-CRP (P = 0.021) levels decreased significantly more than those in the placebo group. High-dose GBCK25 (500 mg) supplementation significantly decreased the fatigue score compared with the placebo group. There were no clinically significant differences between the groups when studying any safety parameter.ConclusionOur results suggest that GBCK25 supplementation has beneficial effects on liver function.Trial registrationThis study was registered at Clinical Trials.gov (NCT03260543).

Changes in the Components of Red Ginseng after Irradiation and the Korean Consumer’s Perception of Irradiated Food

Changes in the Components of Red Ginseng after Irradiation and the Korean Consumer’s Perception of Irradiated Food

Simultaneous quantification of six nonpolar ginsenosides in white ginseng by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with integrated pulsed amperometric detection

BackgroundWhite ginseng consists of the roots and rhizomes of the Panax species, and red ginseng is made by steaming and drying white ginseng. While red ginseng has both polar and nonpolar ginsenosides, previous studies showed white ginseng to have only polar ginsenosides. Because nonpolar ginsenosides are formed through the manufacture of red ginseng from white ginseng, researchers have generally thought that nonpolar ginsenosides do not exist in white ginseng. MethodsWe developed a simultaneous quantitative method for six nonpolar ginsenosides in white ginseng using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with integrated pulsed amperometric detection. The nonpolar ginsenosides of white ginseng were extracted for 4 h under reflux with 50% methanol. ResultsUsing the gradient elution system, all target components were completely separated within 50 min. Nonpolar ginsenosides were determined in the rhizome head (RH), main root (MR), lateral root, and hairy root (HR) of 6-year-old white ginseng samples obtained from several regions (Geumsan, Punggi, and Kanghwa). The total content in the HR of white ginseng was 37.8–56.8% of that in the HR of red ginseng. The total content in the MR of white ginseng was 5.9–24.3% of that in the MR of red ginseng. In addition, the total content in the RH of white ginseng was 28.5–35.8% of that in the HR of red ginseng ConclusionIt was confirmed that nonpolar ginsenosides known to be specific components of red ginseng were present at substantial concentrations in the HR or RH of white ginseng.

Effect of panaxytriol on cytochrome P450 3A4 via the pregnane X receptor regulatory pathway.

Panaxytriol (PXT) is one of the major effective components of red ginseng and Shenmai injection. The present study aimed to explore the effect of PXT on cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) based on the pregnane X receptor (PXR)-CYP3A4 regulatory pathway in HepG2 cells and hPXR-overexpressing HepG2 cells treated with PXT for different time periods using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and dual-luciferase reporter gene assays. PXT could upregulate the levels of PXR and CYP3A4 mRNA in HepG2 cells treated with PXT for 1hr, with no impact on the expression of their protein levels. The expression levels of both PXR and CYP3A4 mRNA and protein in HepG2 cells treated with PXT for 24hr increased in a concentration-dependent manner. The effects of PXT on the expression of PXR and CYP3A4 mRNA and protein in hPXR-overexpressing HepG2 cells were similar to those in HepG2 cells. Moreover, the influence trend of PXT on CYP3A4 was consistent with that of PXR in HepG2 cells and hPXR-overexpressing HepG2 cells. The dual-luciferase reporter gene assay in HepG2 cells further demonstrated that PXT treatment for specific time periods could significantly induce the expression of CYP3A4 mediated by the PXR regulatory pathway.

Antiepileptic and anti-neuroinflammatory effects of red ginseng in an intrahippocampal kainic acid model of temporal lobe epilepsy demonstrated by electroencephalography.

BackgroundChronic inflammation can lower the seizure threshold and have influence on epileptogenesis. The components of red ginseng (RG) have anti-inflammatory effects. The abundance of peripherally derived immune cells in resected epileptic tissue suggests that the immune system is a potential target for anti-epileptogenic therapies. The present study used continuous electroencephalography (EEG) to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of RG in intrahippocampal kainic acid (IHKA) animal model of temporal lobe epilepsy.MethodsProlonged status epilepticus (SE) was induced in 7-week-old C57BL/6J mice via stereotaxic injection of kainic acid (KA, 150 nL; 1 mg/mL) into the right CA3/dorsal hippocampus. The animals were implanted electrodes and monitored for spontaneous seizures. Following the IHKA injections, one group received treatments of RG (250 mg/kg/day) for 4 weeks (RG group, n=7) while another group received valproic acid (VPA, 30 mg/kg/day) (VPA group, n=7). Laboratory findings and pathological results were assessed at D29 and continuous (24 h/week) EEG monitoring was used to evaluate high-voltage sharp waves on D7, D14, D21, and D28.ResultsAt D29, there were no differences between the groups in liver function test but RG group had higher blood urea nitrogen levels. Immunohistochemistry analyses revealed that RG reduced the infiltration of immune cells into the brain and EEG analyses showed that it had anticonvulsant effects.ConclusionRepeated treatments with RG after IHKA-induced SE decreased immune cell infiltration into the brain and resulted in a marked decrease in electrographic seizures. RG had anticonvulsant effects that were similar to those of VPA without serious side effects.

Korean Red Ginseng: Benefits Versus Precautions

Over the years, Korean red ginseng (RG), scientifically known as Panax ginseng, has been used to treat several diseases. It is a prominent and ancient medicinal herb in the Orient. Ginseng ginsenoside is the major component of RG which has been presumed to be responsible for the health benefits of RG. Many studies on P. ginseng have until now concentrated on the mechanism of action of the individual components of RG. However, despite the numerous research on the molecular basis of P. ginseng activities, it is still confusing how several active components can simultaneously interact with several targets to give the diverse effects in different diseases. This overview covered the positive and negative effects of using the Korean RG; it also outlined the major chemical components of the Korean RG.