Companion Robots Research Articles

The Grasp Strategy of a Robot Passer Influences Performance and Quality of the Robot-Human Object Handover.

Task-aware robotic grasping is critical if robots are to successfully cooperate with humans. The choice of a grasp is multi-faceted; however, the task to perform primes this choice in terms of hand shaping and placement on the object. This grasping strategy is particularly important for a robot companion, as it can potentially hinder the success of the collaboration with humans. In this work, we investigate how different grasping strategies of a robot passer influence the performance and the perceptions of the interaction of a human receiver. Our findings suggest that a grasping strategy that accounts for the subsequent task of the receiver improves substantially the performance of the human receiver in executing the subsequent task. The time to complete the task is reduced by eliminating the need of a post-handover re-adjustment of the object. Furthermore, the human perceptions of the interaction improve when a task-oriented grasping strategy is adopted. The influence of the robotic grasp strategy increases as the constraints induced by the object's affordances become more restrictive. The results of this work can benefit the wider robotics community, with application ranging from industrial to household human-robot interaction for cooperative and collaborative object manipulation.

A 3D Computer Vision-Guided Robotic Companion for Non-Contact Human Assistance and Rehabilitation.

With the rapid aging of the U.S. population, the mobility impairment is becoming a more and more challenging issue that affects a large number of individuals. The research presented in this paper aims at helping the mobility-challenged individuals with a novel robotic companion, which is a walker-type mobile robot capable of accompanying the human user and keeping user at the center for protection and possible power assistance. The robotic companion is equipped with a 3D computer vision system, which provides a unique capability of sensing the human-robot relative position/orientation without physical contact or the need for wearable sensors. As such, the robotic companion enables the user to walk freely with minimum disturbance to his/her normal gait, relieving the user from the physical and cognitive loads associated with the use of traditional assistive devices. For the development of the robotic companion, the authors designed and fabricated a low-cost, differentially steered mobile robotic platform, and also developed a unique image processing system to extract the position/orientation information from the 3D camera-captured images. Furthermore, an advanced motion control system was developed for the robotic companion, which provides novel solutions to the unique challenges such as sway reduction and noise reduction in digital differentiation. To quantify the performance, component and system-level experimentation was conducted, and the results demonstrated that robotic companion and its key components function as desired and the system is expected to reduce the user load and improve the user mobility in real-world scenarios.

The Effects of Sensory Enrichment After a Laboratory Stressor on Human Skin Barrier Recovery in a Randomized Trial.

Environmental enrichment (EE) can reduce stress, alter immunity, and speed wound healing in animals. However, it is not known whether these effects translate to humans. This study aimed to investigate whether sensory EE could improve wound healing after a stressor in humans. A total of 105 participants underwent a tape-stripping procedure and were then stressed using a laboratory stress paradigm. After this, they were randomized to interact for 30 minutes with one of two possible sensory EE interventions (music as auditory enrichment or a Paro robot as multisensory enrichment) or to a control condition. Skin barrier recovery was measured using transepidermal water loss at baseline, after the stressor, and after the intervention. Stress was measured using self-report, heart rate, blood pressure, and salivary stress-related biological measures. Enjoyment during the intervention was measured by self-report as a possible mediator. The Paro condition had significantly improved skin barrier recovery (mean [M] = 44%, standard error [SE] = 1.92) compared with the control condition (M = 37% SE = 2.01, F(2,88) = 3.25, p = .043), both with and without controlling for covariates. The music condition did not significantly differ from the other conditions (M = 42%, SE = 1.95, p values > .05). Both objective and subjective stress measures did not significantly differ between conditions. Mediational analysis showed that enjoyment levels during the intervention period significantly mediated the relationship between condition and skin barrier recovery (z = 2.00, p = .046). Paro, or other companion robots, may be an effective form of enrichment to improve skin barrier recovery in humans after a laboratory stressor, and this effect may be due to enjoyment. Further research with patient groups is required to investigate whether Paro can help heal clinical wounds. ACTRN12618000953235, registered at https://anzctr.org.au.

Interactive Question-Posing System for Robot-Assisted Reminiscence From Personal Photographs

Reminiscence is a lifelong activity that happens throughout our lifespan. While memories can serve as topics in people’s everyday conversations, recalling the past can also help us build self-esteem and increase our level of happiness. In this paper, we aim to develop a robot companion that helps people to recollect their memories from personal photographs. We focus on how a robot can associate concepts relevant to the content in the photographs and evoke people’s memories by asking questions that are both relatable and engaging. To understand the content of a picture, we applied deep learning techniques in order to recognize events, objects, and scenes in it. Then, these observations and any user utterances are considered in a Markov random field (MRF)-based algorithm that contains common sense knowledge of a number of events, with loopy belief propagation being used to infer possible associated concepts and topics. Afterward, the robot poses appropriate questions about the selected topics, guiding the user to reminisce through conversation. Our results show that the proposed system can pose related and appropriate questions to interact with the user, and has the potential guide the user to recall the past in an organized way.

Microbial contamination and efficacy of disinfection procedures of companion robots in care homes.

BackgroundParo and other robot animals can improve wellbeing for older adults and people with dementia, through reducing depression, agitation and medication use. However, nursing and care staff we contacted expressed infection control concerns. Little related research has been published. We assessed (i) how microbiologically contaminated robot animals become during use by older people within a care home and (ii) efficacy of a cleaning procedure.MethodsThis study had two stages. In stage one we assessed microbial load on eight robot animals after interaction with four care home residents, and again following cleaning by a researcher. Robot animals provided a range of shell-types, including fur, soft plastic, and solid plastic. Stage two involved a similar process with two robot animals, but a care staff member conducted cleaning. The cleaning process involved spraying with anti-bacterial product, brushing fur-type shells, followed by vigorous top-to-tail cleaning with anti-bacterial wipes on all shell types. Two samples were taken from each of eight robots in stage one and two robots in stage two (20 samples total). Samples were collected using contact plate stamping and evaluated using aerobic colony count and identification (gram stain, colony morphology, coagulase agglutination). Colony counts were measured by colony forming units per square centimetre (CFU/cm2).ResultsMost robots acquired microbial loads well above an acceptable threshold of 2.5 CFU/cm2 following use. The bacteria identified were micrococcus species, coagulase negative staphylococcus, diptheriods, aerobic spore bearers, and staphylococcus aureus, all of which carry risk for human health. For all devices the CFU/cm2 reduced to well within accepted limits following cleaning by both researcher and care staff member.ConclusionsCompanion robots will acquire significant levels of bacteria during normal use. The simple cleaning procedure detailed in this study reduced microbial load to acceptable levels in controlled experiments. Further work is needed in the field and to check the impact on the transmission of viruses.

Mitigating loneliness with companion robots in the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond: an integrative framework and research agenda

PurposeLoneliness and isolation are on the rise, globally threatening the well-being across age groups; global social distancing measures during the COVID-19 crisis have intensified this so-called “loneliness virus”. The purpose of this paper is to develop an integrative framework and research agenda on the role of companion robots in mitigating feelings of loneliness.Design/methodology/approachA netnographic analysis of 595 online visual and textual descriptions offer empirical insights about the role of the companion robot Vector during the COVID-19 pandemic.FindingsThe contributions of this study are twofold. First, it postulates that companion robots have the potential of mitigating feelings of loneliness (i.e. indicator of well-being). Second, this study contributes to transformative service by developing an integrative framework introducing the roles (personal assistant, relational peer and intimate buddy) that companion robots can fulfill to mitigate feelings of loneliness through building different types of supportive relationships.Research limitations/implicationsThe proposed research agenda encourages future service scholars to investigate 1) the role of robots in addressing loneliness, 2) design features that drive adoption of robots, 3) social support for different groups, 4) the operationalization and the measurement of loneliness and 5) an impact analysis of companion robots.Practical implicationsService providers and policy makers can leverage the insights about how companion robots can help reduce a sense of loneliness.Originality/valueThe integrative framework on loneliness reduction, based on 595 unprompted online contributions issued during the COVID-19 pandemic, offers initial evidence for the impact of companion robots in reducing people's feelings of loneliness.

Reading with Robots: A Personalized Robot-Based Learning Companion for Solving Cognitively Demanding Tasks

Soon, sociable companion robots will become indispensable for providing related support in our daily living and tasks. This paper provides process, design perspectives, and deployment of a reading companion robot (IQRA’) that monitors the cognitive load level of a reader during demanding reading tasks and to provide support for readers to complete tasks. Current technological solutions only cover external design aspects of the application and have no adaptive mechanisms to deal with dynamics with the reader’s perspectives and environment. Inspired by several theories from cognitive psychology domains, a computational model of the cognitive load was developed as a basis for reasoning and analytical purposes. This analytical ability provides the robot with a computational mechanism to reason in human-like manners and analyses of the functioning of observed conditions. This is essential in providing better-informed actions and intelligent analysis. Besides, the physical and software design of the robot and essential concepts in human-robot interaction are covered. Also, five evaluation constructs were chosen to evaluate the capability of our robot-based platform. These constructs are; 1) likeability, 2) perceived intelligence, 3) sociability, 4) social presence, and 5) cognitive load. The overall results from the pilot study support the practical usage of our proposed robotic solution.

Reading with robot and human companions in library literacy activities: A comparison study

AbstractMotivated by mixed evidence on the effectiveness of reading companions on children’s reading performance, as well as the clear and present need for libraries to conduct literacy education, this study sought to investigate the feasibility of using social robots in library literacy activities and to extract the essential functions of effective reading companions by comparing human and robot co‐readers. A humanoid robot, Robot Julia, was developed as a social robot to provide oral conversation and offer children tactful and stimulating support for their reading. An experimental study was conducted to examine child patrons’ perceptions and performance in reading activities with the robot companion as compared to human companions. A total of 36 elementary school children participated in the study. The results positively supported that the participants perceived the robot companion as more favourable and desirable to read with than a human co‐reader. The children favoured robotic verbalisation over human verbalisation. According to the results of the comparison, cognitively it was found that human and robot companions facilitated children’s reading comprehension in different ways and that the children performed similarly well with both kinds of reading companions. Affectively, the robot co‐reader induced more social interaction during the reading sessions. Despite all the positive aspects, it is also necessary to consider the limitations including the novelty effect of the approach. This study contributes empirical evidence in the pragmatic field of library science and expands upon social robot research by exploring one‐on‐one child–robot interactions in reading, as opposed to the group contexts in previous studies.

Effects of a Humanoid Companion Robot on Dementia Symptoms and Caregiver Distress for Residents in Long-Term Care

ObjectivesTo test the effects of deploying a humanoid companion robot (Kabochan) in comparison with usual care for long-term care facilities’ residents with dementia. DesignA 2-arm, randomized controlled trial with ABAB withdrawal design, lasting 32 weeks. After an 8-week baseline period, Kabochan was introduced in a nonfacilitated, individual approach with experimental-group participants (n = 52) for 8 weeks, then removed for 8 weeks, and then reintroduced for another 8 weeks. The control group (n = 51) received the usual standardized care. Setting and ParticipantsSeven long-term care facilities in Hong Kong. 103 residents (76% women, 87.2 ± 7.4 years) with a clinical diagnosis of dementia. MeasuresOutcome assessments occurred at 5 time points: baseline (week 1) and the end of each phase (weeks 8, 16, 24, and 32). Primary outcomes were assessed with the Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire (symptom severity and caregiver distress subscales) and the Geriatric Depression Scale; secondary outcomes were measured by the Hong Kong Montreal Cognitive Assessment 5-minute Protocol, the Modified Barthel Index for Activities of Daily Living, and the Quality of Life–Alzheimer's disease scale. ResultsA multivariate analysis of variance indicated a statistically significant group × time interaction for neuropsychiatric-related caregiver distress at week 16 (F = 6.72, P = .011), with a moderate effect size (ηp2 = 0.06). When Kabochan was removed in the withdrawal phase (weeks 17–24), the neuropsychiatric symptoms became more severe at week 24 for the intervention group (F = 4.68, P = .003), although the effect size was small to moderate (ηp2 = 0.04). No statistical between-group differences were found in other health outcomes. Conclusions and ImplicationsThe Kabochan was potentially effective at reducing short-term neuropsychiatric symptoms and relevant caregiver distress for residents with dementia. An individualized care plan with continuous monitoring is required to integrate the humanoid robot into routine dementia care.

Robot companion cats for people at home with dementia: A qualitative case study on companotics.

The use of robot companion pets for people in care homes has been extensively studied. The results are largely positive and suggest that they are valuable in enhancing wellbeing, communication and behavioural aspects. However, there has been little research in people's own homes, possibly due to the cost and complexity of some of the robot pets currently available. As dementia affects people in different ways, this study explores the effects of a robot cat for people in their own homes, without specifically investigating the effects on a particular symptom. We utilised a case study design to investigate the proposition that various factors influence the impact of a robot cat on the person living with dementia and their carer, including acceptability of the robot pet and acceptance of dementia and its symptoms. The qualitative analysis explores the similarities and differences within the data which were gathered during interviews with people with dementia and their families. This analysis revealed four themes: Distraction, Communication, Acceptance and rejection, and Connecting with the cat and connecting with others. These themes were synthesised into two overarching themes: the effect of the cat on mood and behaviour, and The interaction with the cat. We present the acceptability and impact of the robot cat on symptoms of dementia, with data presented across and within the group of participants. Our analysis suggests that benefits of the robot pet were evident, and although this was a small-scale study, where they were accepted, robot pets provided positive outcomes for the participants and their families.

Ethical perceptions towards real-world use of companion robots with older people and people with dementia: survey opinions among younger adults

BackgroundUse of companion robots may reduce older people’s depression, loneliness and agitation. This benefit has to be contrasted against possible ethical concerns raised by philosophers in the field around issues such as deceit, infantilisation, reduced human contact and accountability. Research directly assessing prevalence of such concerns among relevant stakeholders, however, remains limited, even though their views clearly have relevance in the debate. For example, any discrepancies between ethicists and stakeholders might in itself be a relevant ethical consideration while concerns perceived by stakeholders might identify immediate barriers to successful implementation.MethodsWe surveyed 67 younger adults after they had live interactions with companion robot pets while attending an exhibition on intimacy, including the context of intimacy for older people. We asked about their perceptions of ethical issues. Participants generally had older family members, some with dementia.ResultsMost participants (40/67, 60%) reported having no ethical concerns towards companion robot use when surveyed with an open question. Twenty (30%) had some concern, the most common being reduced human contact (10%), followed by deception (6%). However, when choosing from a list, the issue perceived as most concerning was equality of access to devices based on socioeconomic factors (m = 4.72 on a scale 1–7), exceeding more commonly hypothesized issues such as infantilising (m = 3.45), and deception (m = 3.44). The lowest-scoring issues were potential for injury or harm (m = 2.38) and privacy concerns (m = 2.17). Over half (39/67 (58%)) would have bought a device for an older relative. Cost was a common reason for choosing not to purchase a device.ConclusionsAlthough a relatively small study, we demonstrated discrepancies between ethical concerns raised in the philosophical literature and those likely to make the decision to buy a companion robot. Such discrepancies, between philosophers and ‘end-users’ in care of older people, and in methods of ascertainment, are worthy of further empirical research and discussion. Our participants were more concerned about economic issues and equality of access, an important consideration for those involved with care of older people. On the other hand the concerns proposed by ethicists seem unlikely to be a barrier to use of companion robots.

Estimation of body direction based on gait for service robot applications

Recently, there have been several studies on the research and development of service robots, such as reception or waiter robots for facilities and companion robots for support of baggage transportation or guidance in public spaces. Several experimental results in real environments have been reported. To realize socially acceptable human–robot interaction for service robots, human recognition, including not only position but also body direction, around the robot is important. Using an RGB-D camera, it is possible to detect the posture of a person. However, because the viewing angle of the camera is narrow, it is difficult to recognize the environment around the robot with a single device. This study proposes the estimation of the body direction based on the gait, that is, not only the position and velocity, but also the state of the legs (stance or swing phase), using laser range sensors installed at shin height. We verify the effectiveness of the proposed method for several patterns of movement, which are seen when a person interacts with the service robot and evaluate measurement accuracy.

Age-Related Differences in Fixation Pattern on a Companion Robot.

Recent studies have addressed the various benefits of companion robots and expanded the research scope to their design. However, the viewpoints of older adults have not been deeply investigated. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the distinctive viewpoints of older adults by comparing them with those of younger adults. Thirty-one older and thirty-one younger adults participated in an eye-tracking experiment to investigate their impressions of a bear-like robot mockup. They also completed interviews and surveys to help us understand their viewpoints on the robot design. The gaze behaviors and the impressions of the two groups were significantly different. Older adults focused significantly more on the robot’s face and paid little attention to the rest of the body. In contrast, the younger adults gazed at more body parts and viewed the robot in more detail than the older adults. Furthermore, the older adults rated physical attractiveness and social likeability of the robot significantly higher than the younger adults. The specific gaze behavior of the younger adults was linked to considerable negative feedback on the robot design. Based on these empirical findings, we recommend that impressions of older adults be considered when designing companion robots.

First, They Came for the Old and Demented:

Health care technology is all the rage, and artificial intelligence (AI) has long since made its inroads into the previously human-dominated domain of care. AI is used in diagnostics, but also in therapy and assistance, sometimes in the form of social robots with fur, eyes and programmed emotions. Patient welfare, working conditions for the caretakers and cost-efficiency are routinely said to be improved by employing new technologies. The old with dementia might be provided with a robot seal, or a humanoid companion robot, and if these companions increase the happiness of the patients, why should we not venture down this road? Come to think of it, when we have these machines, why not use them as tutors in our schools and caretakers for our children? More happiness reported, as our children are entertained, well-nourished, well-trained and never alone. Lovely and loving robots have also been made, and happiness abounds when these are provided to lonely adults. Happiness all around, and a hedonistic heaven – the utilitarian’s dream, as reported, or measured, well-being reaches all-time highs. But there is a reason to be wary of this development. The logic that allows this development ultimately leads to the conclusion that we would all be best off if we could simply be wired to a computer that provided us with whatever we needed to feel perfectly satisfied. The care-giving machines are here.

Teaching NICO How to Grasp: An Empirical Study on Crossmodal Social Interaction as a Key Factor for Robots Learning From Humans.

To overcome novel challenges in complex domestic environments, humanoid robots can learn from human teachers. We propose that the capability for social interaction should be a key factor in this teaching process and benefits both the subjective experience of the human user and the learning process itself. To support our hypothesis, we present a Human-Robot Interaction study on human-assisted visuomotor learning with the robot NICO, the Neuro-Inspired COmpanion, a child-sized humanoid. NICO is a flexible, social platform with sensing and manipulation abilities. We give a detailed description of NICO's design and a comprehensive overview of studies that use or evaluate NICO. To engage in social interaction, NICO can express stylized facial expressions and utter speech via an Embodied Dialogue System. NICO is characterized in particular by combining these social interaction capabilities with the abilities for human-like object manipulation and crossmodal perception. In the presented study, NICO acquires visuomotor grasping skills by interacting with its environment. In contrast to methods like motor babbling, the learning process is, in part, supported by a human teacher. To begin the learning process, an object is placed into NICO's hand, and if this object is accidentally dropped, the human assistant has to recover it. The study is conducted with 24 participants with little or no prior experience with robots. In the robot-guided experimental condition, assistance is actively requested by NICO via the Embodied Dialogue System. In the human-guided condition, instructions are given by a human experimenter, while NICO remains silent. Evaluation using established questionnaires like Godspeed, Mind Perception, and Uncanny Valley Indices, along with a structured interview and video analysis of the interaction, show that the robot's active requests for assistance foster the participant's engagement and benefit the learning process. This result supports the hypothesis that the ability for social interaction is a key factor for companion robots that learn with the help of non-expert teachers, as these robots become capable of communicating active requests or questions that are vital to their learning process. We also show how the design of NICO both enables and is driven by this approach.

Effects of Different Types of Social Robot Voices on Affective Evaluations in Different Application Fields

As the roles of social robots are increasingly diverse, it is important to design the robots according to their application fields and end-users needs. A robot’s voice is a strong social cue, the design of which can influence people’s affective evaluation and acceptance toward robots. The aim of this study is to investigate the affective evaluation of different robot voices in various application fields, and obtained suitable voice types for robots in different application fields. In particular, this study focused on the three applications (i.e., shopping reception, home companion, and education), investigated the effect of voice types (i.e., male, female, child, and synthetic) of social robots on the affective evaluation of users. Principal component analysis identified three latent influencing factors (i.e., social skills, competence and the state of the interaction relationships). Multivariable analysis proved that for overall acceptance, significant interaction effects existed between robots’ voice types and their application fields. For shopping reception robots, the most acceptable voice type is adult male voice and child voice. For home companion robots, the most acceptable robot voice types are adult male and child voices. For education robots, the most acceptable voice types are adult female and male voices. The results of this study are expected to construct design principles for robot voice design in various applications.

Study on emotion recognition and companion Chatbot using deep neural network

With the development of technology, the importance of the research on speech emotion recognition and semantic analysis has increased. The research is primarily applied in companion robot, technology products and medical purpose. In this research, a communication system with speech emotion recognition is proposed. The system pre-process speech with sound data enhancing method in speech emotion recognition and transform the sound into spectrogram by MFCC (Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficient). Then, GoogLeNet of CNN (Convolutional Neural Network) is applied to recognize the five emotions, which are peace, happy, sad, angry and fear, and the top accuracy of recognition is 79.81%. When applying semantic analysis, the training texts are divided into two categories, positive and negative, and the chatting conversations are conducted in the framework Seq2Seq of RNN (Recurrent Neural Network). The systematic framework of this research has two parts, the client and the server. The former one is developed on Android system to be used in Application, and the latter one is established by Ubuntu Linux system and combined with the web server. With the bi-terminal framework system, the users can record voice in APP one his/her cellphone and upload the voice file to the server. Then, the voice undergoes speech emotion recognition by CNN and semantic analysis by RNN to function as a chatting machine that can respond positively or negatively based on the detected emotion and show the results on APP of the user’s cell phone. The main contributions of this research are: 1) This study introduces the Chinese word vector to the robot dialogue system, effectively improving dialogue tolerance and semantic interpretation, 2) The traditional method of emotion identification must first tokenize the Chinese words, analyze the clauses and part of speech, and capture the emotional keywords before being interpreted by the expert system. Different from the traditional method, this study classifies the input directly through the convolutional neural network after the input sentence is converted into a spectrogram by MFCC, and 3) in addition to implementing the companion robot, the user’s emotional index can be collected for analysis by the back-end care organization. In addition, compared with other commercial humanoid companion robots, this study is presented in an App, which is easier to use and economical.

A narrative approach to human-robot interaction prototyping for companion robots

AbstractThis paper presents a proof of concept prototype study for domestic home robot companions, using a narrative-based methodology based on the principles of immersive engagement and fictional enquiry, creating scenarios which are inter-connected through a coherent narrative arc, to encourage participant immersion within a realistic setting. The aim was to ground human interactions with this technology in a coherent, meaningful experience. Nine participants interacted with a robotic agent in a smart home environment twice a week over a month, with each interaction framed within a greater narrative arc. Participant responses, both to the scenarios and the robotic agents used within them are discussed, suggesting that the prototyping methodology was successful in conveying a meaningful interaction experience.

Influence of Reaction Time in the Emotional Response of a Companion Robot to a Child\u2019s Aggressive Interaction

The quality of a companion robot’s reaction is important to make it acceptable to the users and to sustain interactions. Furthermore, the robot’s reaction can be used to train socially acceptable behaviors and to develop certain skills in both normally developing children and children with cognitive disabilities. In this study, we investigate the influence of reaction time in the emotional response of a robot when children display aggressive interactions toward it. Different interactions were considered, namely, pickup, shake, drop and throw. The robot produced responses as audible sounds, which were activated at three different reaction times, namely, 0.5 s, 1.0 s, and 1.5 s. The results for one of the tasks that involved shaking the robotic toys produced a significant difference between the timings tested. This could imply that producing a late response to an action (i.e. greater than 1.0 s) could negatively affect the children’s comprehension of the intended message. Furthermore, the response should be comprehensible to provide a clear message to the user. The results imply that the designers of companion robotic toys need to consider an appropriate timing and clear modality for their robots’ responses.

Falling in love with robots: a phenomenological study of experiencing technological alterities

AbstractIs it possible for human beings to establish romantic relationships with robots? What kind of otherness, or alterity, will be construed in the process of falling in love with a robot? Can a robotic companion mean more than being a tool for house-work, a caretaker, an aid of self-gratification, or a sex-doll? Phenomenological analysis of love experience suggests that romantic feelings necessarily include experiencing the alterity of the partner as an affective subjectivity that freely, willingly, and passionately commits to its partner. The romantic commitment is expected to stem from the sentient inner selves of the lovers, which is one of the features that robots are lacking. Thus the artificial alterity might disengage our romantic aspirations, and, as argued by many, will make them morally inferior to intraspecies love affairs. The current analysis will restrain from ethical considerations, however, and will focus on whether robots can in principle elicit human feelings of love.