Community-based Conservation Programs Research Articles

Field foot patrol effectiveness in Kafue National Park, Zambia

Field foot patrols effectiveness for wildlife protection in a large vegetal mosaic Kafue National Park (22,400 km2) was assessed for two successive periods of different duration. The relationship between patrol days spent in the field by patrol teams and resultant outcomes was determined. Using trained patrol scout teams, field data was recorded on prescribed patrol forms. Prosecution data was populated into database and analysed for their spatial coverage. Study findings showed that 2 to 8 day foot patrols were more effective than protracted patrols. By changing field patrol duration the Wildlife Agency significantly reduced events of “serious and minor offences” and saved at least 46.67% of its conservation funds for foot patrols. Most of the offenders (69.13%) of environmental crimes originated from adjacent areas to the Park. It was proposed that wildlife managers explore and implement effective pragmatic foot patrols on site specific basis. In addition, it was postulated that community based conservation programmes in peripherals of Kafue National Park, if strengthened, could greatly contribute to biodiversity conservation. Future studies would be required to further investigate drivers of environmental crimes, elucidating attitudes of poachers and reasons for their involvement in illegal wildlife trade vis-a-vis local demands of natural products. Key words: Environmental crimes, effectiveness, community based conservation, Kafue National Park, Zambia.

Ecologic salience and agreement on the identification of tree species from Brazilian Atlantic Forest

This study aims to investigate the consensus among informants in the naming of tree species from a high diversity environment, the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (Sete Barras, SP), through a methodological procedure based on standardized stimuli. Seven selected local experts on tree species used for timber and handicrafts were asked to walk individually across the same area of 1.72 ha and identify and name all the known trees of more than 4 cm DBH (diameter at breast height) using common names. All trees were botanically identified, and their DBH and height were measured. The ecologic salience of tree species, expressed in terms of abundance, average height and DBH, was tested in relation to the informants' knowledge and species naming. The guided walks resulted on 708 identification events, with common names corresponding to 122 botanical species, or 68% of all tree species present. Both the reduced abundance and ecological salience of rare species can explain their recognition. The highest concordances in naming a tree were related only to the species abundance and not to their size (given by diameter and height). In some cases, there is no single common name for a botanical species, reflecting the intrinsic variation in local knowledge, which must be considered in ethnobotanical studies, in ecological assessments based on local knowledge, as well as in community-based conservation and management programs.

Large mammal Fauna of the Afadjato and Agumatsa range in Ghana: An important bird area

The Mount Afadjato and Agumatsa Range Conservation Area (AACA) is one of the globally important bird area in Ghana, currently being managed through community-based conservation actions by local people with the support of the Ghana Wildlife Society. As in many other Ghanaian communities the mammal fauna of the site continue to decline as a result of many factors, basically anthropogenic in origin. The aim of the study was to assess the status of large mammals in the area in terms of their diversity, relative abundance, density, and species of local, national and international conservation concern, and the factors likely to affect these variables. The diversity, relative abundance and densities of mammal species at the site are one of the lowest in Ghanaian forests. There is every indication that the major factors causing the decline in mammal population in the area are habitat degradation and hunting pressure. As in many other communities in the West African sub-region, all mammals are negatively impacted upon by human activities. Consequently, given that whatever activities being proposed by the locally initiated community-based conservation programme will greatly depend on availability of wildlife, especially for ecotourism, there is a need for a more pragmatic approach to conserve the remaining wildlife without further delay.

Impact of livestock management on water quality and streambank structure in a semi-arid, African ecosystem

Natural resource management may change local and regional ecosystems, especially in drought-prone environments. Livestock are commonly kept as a source of capital in agriculturally dominated communities in Southern Africa, but the mis-management of available forage and water resources has led to significant land and water degradation. In Northwest Zimbabwe, to reverse trends in environmental degradation a community-based conservation program was established that uses intensive Holistic Management Planned Grazing (HMPG) to restore lost habitat and re-establish natural vegetation. We examined riparian ecosystem structure and water quality to compare the environmental impact of this management to nearby communal lands during a drought. The results demonstrate that concentrating livestock on ephemeral stream standing pools results in reduced water quality and altered riparian ecosystem structure. These results were not significantly different from what was observed when wildlife utilized similar water resources without livestock influence. When water is scarce, as during extreme droughts, livestock usage of surface water resources must be weighted against community water needs. The long-term regional benefits of HMPG may prevail over short-term reductions in local water quality but more research is needed to assess all the consequences of such management.

Costing the conservation of animal genetic resources: The case of Borana cattle in Ethiopia and Kenya

Individual preferences, changing market conditions, environmental constraints, and regulatory interventions can all contribute towards livestock-keepers in arid environments moving away from their traditional livestock production systems. As a consequence, certain local breeds and the genetic resources they represent may become used less and less, eventually becoming threatened with extinction. Where society considers the maintenance of such genetic diversity to be important, conservation initiatives must be established. The paper presents results from an empirical case study carried out in the Borana lowlands of Ethiopia and Kenya. Conservation costs in the form of local livestock-keeper opportunity costs incurred from keeping the breed targeted for conservation rather than an alternative breed were measured. A contingent valuation, involving 370 households each completing an iterative bidding game, was applied. Respondents stated their willingness to accept compensation for conserving traditional Borana cattle instead of keeping other cattle breeds. The data was analysed using a Tobit model and we conclude that the costs of a community-based conservation programme split between Ethiopia and Kenya, based on a safe minimum herd size, would require €25,400 per year in terms of direct support payments and management and monitoring costs.

Empty forests: Large carnivore and prey abundance in Namdapha National Park, north-east India

Illegal hunting poses a dual threat to large carnivores through direct removal of individuals and by prey depletion. We conducted a camera-trapping survey in the Namdapha National Park, north-east India, conducted as part of a programme to evaluate carnivore and prey species abundance. Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) was the only large carnivore detected by camera-trapping. Indirect evidences indicated the presence of the wild dog (Cuon alpinus) and leopard (Panthera pardus), however, there was no evidence of tigers (Panthera tigris), suggesting their possible extinction from the lower elevation forests. Of the major ungulate prey species, sambar (Cervus unicolor) and wild pig (Sus scrofa) were the only large prey detected, while the Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) was the only small prey species detected. Relative abundances of all species were appreciably lower than estimates from other tropical forests in south-east Asia. We suspect that illegal hunting may be the cause for the low carnivore and prey species abundance. An ongoing community-based conservation programme presents an opportunity to reduce local people’s dependence on hunting by addressing their socio-economic needs and for using their skills and knowledge of the landscape for wildlife conservation. However, long-term wildlife monitoring is essential to assess the efficacy of the socio-economic interventions in bringing about wildlife recovery.

The Costs of Exclusion: Recognizing a Role for Local Communities in Biodiversity Conservation

There is little debate that unchecked human population growth and the development of “modern” societies are responsible for the current biodiversity crisis. To stop the growing loss of biodiversity, global conservation efforts have mostly focused on creating protected areas free of human influence [1]. But many of these protected areas are also in crisis. In most cases, their long-term viability depends on the integrity of complex ecological processes that stretch well beyond their geographical boundaries. Efficient conservation initiatives need to be undertaken at the landscape level, incorporating multiple-use habitats where people and wildlife co-habit [2]. Since most traditional conservation efforts were typically designed to exclude human residents, they have often failed to actively involve groups of people living within or near protected areas. This failure to consider the interests of local communities has resulted in a general lack of support for conservation and subsequent degradation of protected areas [3]. Theories, rationales, and underlying principles about ways to integrate conservation and development are fueling passionate debate at many levels, but convincing documentation of successful implementation is still scarce [3–5]. Since substantial biodiversity is still occurring outside of protected areas, we believe that poverty eradication and biodiversity conservation are intimately interconnected. Addressing these two challenges simultaneously remains one of our best hopes for achieving tangible and durable results [6]. Here we describe two cross-cultural and inclusive community-based conservation programs in Borneo and Papua New Guinea (PNG) that were designed with these factors in mind.

Egyptian tortoise conservation: A community‐based, field research program developed from a study on a captive population

Local community participation and ex situ conservation has the potential to assist the recovery of the endangered Egyptian tortoise, Testudo kleinmanni. We initiated an in situ community-based conservation and research program from a captive population of T. kleinmanni. We used a captive population of the Egyptian tortoise to train a member of the local community as a research technician and used his indigenous tracking skills and knowledge of the area to collect activity and dietary data on 28 captive tortoises. We overcame problems with illiteracy by creating a data sheet based on symbols and numbers. This data sheet allowed us to use the indigenous knowledge of various people from the community, and employ them in the future. Our local community approach to data collection, in conjunction with a craft program, made the conservation of the Egyptian tortoise more rewarding to the local community by providing a more sustainable form of income than collecting animals for the pet trade. Our multidimensional approach (local community participation as research technicians, craft program, and trust building) for gaining local support eventually led to the rediscovery of wild Egyptian tortoises in North Sinai, which was significant, as this species was presumed extinct in Egypt. We have now shifted our focus to in situ conservation, using the research and local capacity building template developed from this captive population study. Our template can be used by zoos and conservation organizations with small budgets and collections of native species in natural habitats to create similar captive research programs that can be applied to in situ conservation. Zoo Biol 26:397-406, 2007. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Customary management as precautionary and adaptive principles for protecting coral reefs in Oceania

Marine conservation programs in Oceania are increasingly turning to precautionary and adaptive management, particularly approaches which emphasize local participation and customary management. Although the application of community-based natural resource management is widespread in the region, the full integration of local knowledge and practices into the design, implementation, and monitoring of community-based conservation programs has been limited. There is also little empirical data to show whether or not community-based conservation projects are meeting their stated objectives. This paper summarizes an integrated method for selecting Marine Protected Area (MPA) sites and presents empirical evidence that illustrates how an MPA that was largely conceived using indigenous ecological knowledge and existing sea tenure governance (i.e., customary management practices), as part of a regional precautionary and adaptive community-based management plan, is showing signs of biological and social success. More generally, the paper shows how hybrid natural and social research approaches in tandem with customary management for designing MPAs can protect coral reefs in Oceania.

The Recently Described Highland Mangabey, Lophocebus kipunji (Cercopithecoidea, Cercopithecinae): Current Knowledge and Conservation Assessment

The highland mangabey (Lophocebus kipunji), described and named in 2005, is the first monkey to be discovered in Africa since 1984. This species, endemic to Tanzania, was independently discovered by two research groups, one working in Ndundulu Forest in the Udzungwa Mountains, the other ∼350 km to the southwest in the Rungwe-Livingstone Forest in the Southern Highlands. Lophocebus kipunji is an arboreal omnivore with a morphology and vocal repertoire distinct from other mangabeys (Lophocebus spp. and Cercocebus spp.). Although few data are available, studies of its molecular biology, ecology, behavior, and conservation status are underway. Lophocebus kipunji is Critically Endangered as a result of hunting and loss of habitat, which have produced small and fragmented populations. Efforts to improve the conservation status of both Ndundulu Forest and Rungwe-Livingstone Forest are ongoing, as well as augmentation of community-based conservation programs with expanded law enforcement. Research, long-term monitoring, effective law enforcement, and additional conservation projects are all essential to the long-term survival of L. kipunji.

Integrating analyses of local land-use regulations, cultural perceptions and land-use/land cover data for assessing the success of community-based conservation

Studies of land-use/land cover change are an important means for examining the viability of community-based programs for forest conservation, although an analysis of the social processes influencing land-use decisions is necessary to understand the factors leading to different conservation outcomes. In this paper, we demonstrate that an analysis of locally recognized land-use rules and regulations embedded in local institutions can inform remote-sensing approaches by helping: (1) to elucidate some of the local perceptions, criteria and interactions with outside agencies that drive conservation actions and (2) to better interpret the spatial patterns of land-use change and forest conservation revealed by remote-sensing data. Based on a case study of a forest ejido from the Maya Zone of Quintana Roo, Mexico, we evaluate changes in forest cover and in local land-use regulations before and after the initiation in the mid-1980s of a community forestry program, the Plan Piloto Forestal (PPF). Methods included development of a time series of land cover maps based on LANDSAT imagery from 1976, 1988, 1991, 1997 and 2000, as well as interviews and participant observation with local farmers and community leaders. Results indicate a high degree of forest conservation on community lands with net rates of forest loss of 0.6–0.7%/year. Locally recognized conservation regulations included a number of forest reserves as well as regulations which protect specific forest types, resulting from both local initiatives and interventions of external agencies. These initiatives included but were not limited to the PPF, highlighting the importance of evaluating community-based conservation programs within a broader historical context. Conservation regulations protecting an important commercial non-timber forest product ( Manilkara zapota) pre-dated the PPF and may have facilitated its implementation. In the most accessible agricultural areas, the only mature forest patches were customary forest reserves and an area regenerated from secondary forests, protected due to enrichment plantings of commercial timbers. Recognition of local Maya terminology used to distinguish forest types was crucial for proper interpretation of local land-use regulations, which revealed that less-valued forest types may not be adequately protected on community lands. We suggest that future research should examine the significance of the less-valued forest types for global biodiversity conservation. In addition careful consideration of the historical antecedents and community institutions which may have facilitated the implementation of the Plan Piloto Forestal will be important for the successful application of this model of community forestry to other socio-economic and cultural contexts.

Selected dynamics of human interference and impact on the reed forests of the Sylhet region

The reed forest of the Sylhet region is of enormous ecological and socioeconomic importance but has been rapidly eroded in recent years. The present research focuses on the extent and dynamics of dependency of local people on the forest, the socioeconomic impact on the reed forest resources, challenges and problems of biodiversity management, and people's perceptions and views on conservation. Fieldwork was conducted on the two Thanas of Companigonj and Dowarabazar, and empirical study tools included socioeconomic survey, participatory rural appraisal, in-depth interview and a preliminary forest resource inventory. Field observations reveal that over-exploitation of forest products, organized large-scale encroachment, changed land-use patterns (notably conversion to agriculture), low degree of public awareness, and habitat destruction are the main causes of biodiversity loss. Education has a clear link with forest resource collection from the reed forests: the higher the level of education, the lower the extent of reed collection. The most pressing challenges to biodiversity management and conservation include excessive population pressure, poverty, lack of education, inadequate employment and alternative income generation opportunities, and a low degree of awareness of the value of biodiversity conservation. Most respondents believe that the process of encroachment on reed forest land is influenced and manipulated by powerful vested interest groups consisting mostly of local government and political leaders, moneyed traders, or corrupt officials. The villagers are aware of forest destruction, and express concerns about the impacts and implications of denudation of the resource and associated biodiversity loss, e.g.: scarcity of fodder; destruction of homesteads by waves and surges especially in the rainy season in oxbow lakes and a reduction in wildlife. Most villagers suggest that the forest department should explore possibilities of introducing community-based social forestry and biodiversity conservation programmes in the forests with active participation of the local people. A process of systematic public consultation should be started immediately towards this end. An integrated management plan should be developed, in close consultation with the community, which addresses such demands and land usage concerning wood and non-wood products, agriculture, fisheries and conservation of ecosystems to promote biodiversity of flora and fauna. Core and buffer zones must be delineated when allocating land use in reed forest areas.

Socio-economic differentiation in the trade of wildlife species for traditional medicines in the Lowveld, South Africa: Implications for resource management initiatives

SUMMARY Surveys of trade in wildlife products utilised in traditional medicine were conducted between 1997 and 1999 on the western boundary of the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Although the extent of trade and numbers of people operating in this sector were lower than other regions of South Africa, this study again highlighted the value of indigenous wildlife products to subsistence economies. Apart from cultural diversity, socioeconomic differentiation occurred at a number of levels. (i) There were socio-economic differences between the traders and vendors. (ii) Gender differences were apparent, with women earning significantly less than men and having to undergo more social challenges in their operation in the market place. (iii) Operational differences were noted between the vendors and traders, as well as between the street and pension day vendors. (iv) Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) highlighted the socio-economic differentiation at the household level, emphasizing in particular one of the most vulnerable groups, the elderly. The potential influence of this socio-economic differentiation needs to be considered during the development of Community-Based Conservation programmes, if the dual aims of conserving biodiversity and improving the lives and livelihoods of those who traditionally rely on medicinal plants are to be met.

Bushmeat hunting by communities adjacent to the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: the importance of livestock ownership and alternative sources of protein and income

Illegal hunting of resident and migratory herbivores is widespread in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. To devise effective strategies to reduce levels of hunting, information is required on why people are involved in illegal hunting and the role of bushmeat in the local economy. Participation in hunting may be influenced by measures of relative wealth, including livestock ownership, means of generating cash income and access to alternative sources of meat. Data came from 300 individuals responding to a questionnaire in 10 villages, from responses by 359 people in 24 group discussions in another 12 villages, and from 552 people arrested and interviewed in the National Park. A smaller proportion of individual respondents (32%) than group respondents (57%) volunteered that they participated in illegal hunting. Most individual and group respondents were subsistence farmers who considered bushmeat to be a source of protein and a means of generating cash income. Three-quarters of those arrested participated in hunting primarily to generate cash income and a quarter claimed that they only hunted to obtain food. Participation in illegal hunting decreased as wealth in terms of the number of sheep and goats owned increased. People with access to alternative means of generating income or acquiring protein were also less likely to be involved in illegal hunting. Arrested respondents were typically young adult males with low incomes and few or no livestock. Illegal hunting was not reduced by participation in community-based conservation pro-grammes. Results suggested that between 52 000 and 60 000 people participated in illegal hunting within protected areas, and that many young men (approximately 5200) derived their primary source of income from hunting.

Community Conservation and the Future of Africa's Wildlife

Abstract: The term community‐based conservation (CBC) refers to wildlife conservation efforts that involve rural people as an integral part of a wildlife conservation policy. The key elements of such programs are that local communities participate in resource planning and management and that they gain economically from wildlife utilization. In part, CBC is seen as an alternative to the more exclusionary protectionist policies of the past, which often alienated rural people from conservation efforts. The new approach acts to make rural people a constituency for wildlife and therefore active backers of wildlife protection. Africans, however, are struggling with severe social and economic problems such as poverty, long‐standing economic stagnation, rapid population growth, and environmental deterioration. Because of the pressures that Africans face in making a living, the application of CBC may not occur as readily or as successfully as its advocates would hope. It may also be that the approach is being oversold. I use brief case studies from Madagascar, Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, and Swaziland to highlight the possible conflicts between rural people's economic needs and the implementation of community conservation. In addition, the CBC literature treats the role of protection vaguely, as it does the question of what might happen if CBC fails to achieve wildlife conservation goals. Community‐based conservation is an obvious advance over past practices because of its inclusive philosophy, but if rural people accept CBC because of its economic benefits, they may reject it at some point in the future if a better economic alternative is presented. Thus, CBC programs can work to produce a better relationship between wildlife and people, but only a vast improvement in the lives of rural Africans will ultimately produce a more secure future for the continent's wildlife.

Local attitudes toward community-based conservation policy and programmes in Nepal: a case study in the Makalu-Barun Conservation Area

Community-based conservation (CBC) has been projected as the most practical approach to stem biodiversity loss in developing countries. Since CBC is 'people-centred' and experience with it is relatively new, it is important to know the views of local communities regarding implemented policies and programmes. This paper examines the attitudes of local communities toward policy and programmes implemented by a project under the CBC approach in the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area of Nepal, based on a 1996 survey of 400 people living in it.Overall, respondents did not have a particularly favourable perception of the community development programmes implemented. Strong support existed for ecotourism development in the Conservation Area. Respondents overwhelmingly endorsed community forestry. Wildlife protection remained a low priority amongst a significant majority of respondents. Some demographic and socio-economic factors exerted important influences on the attitudes of respondents. This study suggests that the project should continue addressing local development needs, encourage women's participation in community forestry, work toward dispute settlement of community forest-user groups, and allow hunting of pest wild animals, if it wants to win the support of local communities for long-term biodiversity conservation goals.