Rural Alaskan Communities Research Articles

The Role of Alaska's Tribal Health Workers in Supporting Families.

Alaska's Community Health Aides/Practitioners (CHA/Ps) are often the sole medical workers in their communities in rural Alaska, and are instrumental in providing healthcare services and education to otherwise underserved individuals. This qualitative study explored how CHA/Ps support healthy families. Six CHA/Ps from two rural communities in western Alaska were interviewed about their scope of practice, interactions with mothers, infants, families, and teens, relationship to other medical providers, and perceptions of their work. Using grounded theory, verbatim notes were analyzed in Dedoose software and coded by thematic and structural components. Interviewed CHA/Ps shared how the CHA/P program is a culturally relevant way to deliver healthcare, and talked about the challenges of the work, rewards, and suggestions for improvement. CHA/Ps described their unique role as the on-the-ground health and wellness resource in their communities, and talked about consulting with other medical professionals to provide better care for individuals in rural Alaska. CHA/Ps described that they provided prenatal care, patient education during pregnancy, emergency delivery services when necessary, well-child visits, and outreach to teens to give fluoride rinses, vaccinations, and education about issues such as sexual health and drugs/alcohol. CHA/Ps also talked about patient education as a primary responsibility, which also reduced patient load and prevented burn-out. The CHA/P program is a comprehensive and innovative approach to providing healthcare education and services that promotes healthy communities, including positive parent-infant interactions, child wellness, and teen decision-making. The program is a healthcare delivery model translatable to other tribal and limited-resource contexts.

The search for an alternative to piped water and sewer systems in the Alaskan Arctic.

Forty-two communities in rural Alaska are considered unserved or underserved with water and sewer infrastructure. Many challenges exist to provide centralized piped water and sewer infrastructure to the homes, and they are exacerbated by decreasing capital funding. Unserved communities in rural Alaska experience higher rates of disease, supporting the recommendation that sanitation infrastructure should be provided. Organizations are pursuing alternative solutions to conventional piped water and sewer in order to maximize water use and reuse for public health. This paper reviews initiatives led by the State of Alaska, the Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium, and the Yukon Kuskokwim Health Corporation to identify and develop potential long-term solutions appropriate and acceptable to rural communities. Future developments will likely evolve based on the lessons learned from the initiatives. Recommendations include Alaska-specific research needs, increased end-user participation in the design process, and integrated monitoring, evaluation, and information dissemination in future efforts.

Seasons of Stress: Understanding the Dynamic Nature of People’s Ability to Respond to Change and Surprise

Abstract Climate change is impacting coastal communities in rural Alaska in multiple direct and indirect ways. Here, findings are reported from ethnographic research done with municipal workers, community leaders, and other local experts in the Bristol Bay region of Alaska, where it is found that climate change is interacting with local social and environmental circumstances in ways more nuanced than are generally captured by frameworks for vulnerability analysis. Specifically, the research herein shows the importance of the temporal dimension of vulnerability to environmental change in rural Alaska, both in terms of temporal patterns that emerge from climate-driven stressors and also with respect to how, and under what conditions, people in rural communities may design or manage effective responses to change. There are multiple factors that play into how rural communities will be affected by some climatic or environmental stress; ultimately, the impacts of climatic and environmental stressors will differ depending on where, when, and how frequently they occur. To capture these interactions, two analytical concepts—community capacity and cumulative effects—are discussed and then incorporated into a visual tool for improved planning and vulnerability analysis.

Partitioning and Transport Behavior of Pathogen Indicator Organisms at Four Cold Region Solid Waste Sites

AbstractFreshwater resources in rural Alaska communities, especially those underlain by permafrost, are particularly vulnerable to impacts from nearby waste facilities. The authors investigated the connection between rural solid waste facilities and transmission of pathogenic organisms into nearby water resources by evaluating the (1) prevalence of pathogen indicators E. coli and Enterococcus sp. proximal to cold region waste facilities, and (2) partitioning behavior of both organisms in a controlled snowmelt lysimeter test. Results reveal that E. coli and Enterococcus sp. preferentially attach to and migrate with soil particles in surface waters and are transported off-site during snowmelt runoff. Enterococcus sp. had higher and more sustained viability in cold environmental conditions than E. coli. E. coli and Enterococcus sp. were found in surface waters and soils in the concentration range of 0.7–3.5 mean log most probably number (MPN)/100 mL H2O. All microbial samples indicated strong site-specific ...

Regional Patterns of Fish and Wildlife Harvests in Contemporary Alaska

Subsistence harvests of fish and wildlife play a vital role in the economies and ways of life of rural Alaska communities. State and federal laws establish a priority for subsistence over other fishing and hunting. These laws recognize that the economic, cultural, and social role of subsistence fishing and hunting is not uniform across Alaska: federal law limits eligibility to rural residents, and state law, while allowing all state residents to participate, requires the identification of nonsubsistence areas where subsistence fishing and hunting are not permitted. But defining “rural Alaska” and “nonsubsistence areas” sparked decades of political debate and litigation. A review of nonsubsistence areas by the Alaska Joint Board of Fisheries and Game in 2013 resulted in updated estimates of noncommercial fish and wildlife harvests. Comprehensive data from systematic household surveys in 198 rural communities provided a basis for estimating harvest levels and trends at census-area and statewide levels and crucial input to board deliberations. In 2012, rural Alaska harvests averaged 134 kg/person, while urban Alaska harvests averaged 10 kg/person. The statewide rural harvest was 26% below an estimate for the 1980s, but changes varied by region. Throughout the Arctic and Subarctic, factors shaping subsistence harvests include development, the rising costs of living, shifting resource populations, regulations, climate change, and cultural change. Understanding the vulnerability and adaptability of northern communities requires monitoring of subsistence harvests through annual programs and periodic comprehensive community studies.

Peak oil and climate change in a rural Alaskan community

Peak oil and global warming have both been vilified and then vindicated. When the small community of Haines, Alaska, dependent for food, fuel and social services on the increasingly less viable fossil fuel economy, began noticing deficits in early 2007, its Borough Assembly engaged the volunteer Haines Energy Task Force to research and make recommendations on alternative energy sources for heating and transportation, local food production and harvesting of subsistence resources, social services and economic change. As a long-term resident and property owner, I found myself in a zone of identification (Burke 1950) as part of a nexus of practice (NOP) of citizens thinking about the future of reduced and alternative energy consumption and taking action toward bringing about the envisioned future. As part of this NOP, my analysis constituted social action by transforming the NOP in engaging the NOP, the opening move in a nexus analysis (Scollon and Scollon 2004: 9). This paper is an account of the ways and extent to which the task force was able to bring about change in the community. It is not a nexus analysis as such but a summary report.

Interdisciplinary approach to hydrological hazard mitigation and disaster response and effects of climate change on the occurrence of flood severity in central Alaska

Abstract. In May 2013, a massive ice jam on the Yukon River caused flooding that destroyed much of the infrastructure in the Interior Alaska village of Galena and forced the long-term evacuation of nearly 70% of its residents. This case study compares the communication efforts of the out-of-state emergency response agents with those of the Alaska River Watch program, a state-operated flood preparedness and community outreach initiative. For over 50 years, the River Watch program has been fostering long-lasting, open, and reciprocal communication with flood prone communities, as well as local emergency management and tribal officials. By taking into account cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic features of rural Alaskan communities, the River Watch program was able to establish and maintain a sense of partnership and reliable communication patterns with communities at risk. As a result, officials and residents in these communities are open to information and guidance from the River Watch during the time of a flood, and thus are poised to take prompt actions. By informing communities of existing ice conditions and flood threats on a regular basis, the River Watch provides effective mitigation efforts in terms of ice jam flood effects reduction. Although other ice jam mitigation attempts had been made throughout US and Alaskan history, the majority proved to be futile and/or cost-ineffective. Galena, along with other rural riverine Alaskan communities, has to rely primarily on disaster response and recovery strategies to withstand the shock of disasters. Significant government funds are spent on these challenging efforts and these expenses might be reduced through an improved understanding of both the physical and climatological principals behind river ice breakup and risk mitigation. This study finds that long term dialogue is critical for effective disaster response and recovery during extreme hydrological events connected to changing climate, timing of river ice breakup, and flood occurrence in rural communities of the Far North.

Digital storytelling: a tool for health promotion and cancer awareness in rural Alaskan communities

BackgroundThe purpose of this study was to learn community members’ perspectives about digital storytelling after viewing a digital story created by a Community Health Aide/Practitioner (CHA/P).MethodsUsing a qualitative research design, we explored digital storytelling likeability as a health-messaging tool, health information viewers reported learning and, if viewing, cancer-related digital stories facilitated increased comfort in talking about cancer. In addition, we enquired if the digital stories affected how viewers felt about cancer, as well as if viewing the digital stories resulted in health behaviour change or intent to change health behaviour.FindingsA total of 15 adult community members participated in a 30–45 minute interview, 1–5 months post-viewing of a CHA/P digital story. The majority (13) of viewers interviewed were female, all were Alaska Native and they ranged in age from 25 to 54 years with the average age being 40 years. Due to the small size of communities, which ranged in population from 160 to 2,639 people, all viewers knew the story creator or knew of the story creator. Viewers reported digital stories as an acceptable, emotionally engaging way to increase their cancer awareness and begin conversations. These conversations often served as a springboard for reflection, insight, and cancer-prevention and risk-reduction activities.

Relationship of Community Characteristics to Harvest Reporting: Comparative Study of Household Surveys and Harvest Tickets in Alaska

Accurate harvest reporting is critical for wildlife management. Rural Alaskan communities reported a median of 42% of moose harvested via traditional harvest tickets compared to those reported in household surveys. This harvest-report ratio did not change over time. Twice as many moose were reported harvested during subsistence household surveys (n = 8,039) than on hunter harvest tickets (n = 3,557). Percentage of the community that was indigenous, used and shared moose, and absence of a wildlife biologist or road access were associated with low harvest-report ratios. Analysis revealed that household surveys provide important information about moose harvest rates and their use should be expanded. Reporting rates might be improved by building trust through respectful dialogue between hunters and managers and by placing more emphasis on the benefits of reporting harvests and less emphasis on enforcement.

Seabirds as a subsistence and cultural resource in two remote Alaskan communities

Small rural Alaskan communities face many challenges surrounding rapid social and ecological change. The role of local subsistence resources may change over time because of changes in social perception, economic need, and cultural patterns of use. We look at the Bering Sea’s Pribilof Islands, comprising two very small communities, and investigate the relationship between the local residents and seabirds as a natural resource. Seabirds may strengthen ties to older ways of life and have potential for future economic opportunities, or modernization may direct interest away from seabirds as a cultural and economic resource. We conducted a survey and interviews of residents of the two Pribilof Island communities, St. Paul and St. George, to assess opinions toward seabirds and harvest levels. Seabirds were generally regarded as important both to individuals and the wider community. However, current levels of subsistence harvest are low, and few people continue to actively harvest or visit seabird colonies. Respondents expressed desire for greater knowledge about seabirds and also concerns about the current economy of the islands and a lack of future development prospects. Despite the challenging economic conditions, the villages retain a strong sense of community and place value on their environment and on seabirds. Surveys indicated an interest in developing eco-tourism based around local resources, including seabirds, as a way to improve the economy.

Impact of fuel costs on high-latitude subsistence activities

Most rural residents in Arctic communities rely on motorized transportation to hunt, fish, trap, and gather subsistence resources. Although these technologies have created advantages, one significant disadvantage is that peoples' ability to meet their nutritional and cultural needs now depends on consistent opportunities for wage employment and availability of affordable fuel. Recent qualitative research suggested that rising fuel prices have disrupted subsistence lifestyles in the Arctic. Our objectives were to collaborate with subsistence users in rural Alaskan communities to quantify how rising fuel costs have impacted subsistence activities and explore ways local residents may adapt to the trajectory of change. We conducted interviews with 178 subsistence harvesters in 8 communities. During the last 10 years, 81% of the harvesters reduced the distance they traveled for subsistence and 89% reduced the number of subsistence trips they took because of gasoline costs. During the last 10 years, the median distance traveled to perform subsistence decreased by 60%, and the median annual number of trips taken to perform subsistence decreased by 75%. The change in subsistence activity was similar across and within communities. Eighty-five percent of the people interviewed reported that they were making sacrifices with serious consequences, such as putting off paying monthly bills, to buy gasoline for subsistence activities. To adapt to high gasoline prices, most participants said that they are using more efficient modes of transportation (69%), followed by more sharing of gasoline costs with family and friends (37%), and conducting more multipurpose subsistence trips (20%). With subsistence practices being critical to food security and cultural identity in the Arctic, our results suggest that unaffordable fuel has threatened social resilience. Because global markets drive gasoline prices, we suggest that future research focus on the effectiveness of adaptation options that build resilience into subsistence systems.

Measuring perceptions of climate change in northern Alaska: pairing ethnography with cultural consensus analysis

Given current and projected warming trends in the Arctic and the important role played by subsistence hunting and fishing in the life of northern rural communities, it is increasingly important to document local observations of climate change and its impacts on livelihood practices. We describe ethnographic research exploring local observations of climate changes and related impacts on subsistence fisheries in three Inupiat communities in northwest Alaska and six Athabascan communities in the Yukon River drainage. We found consistent agreement among perceptions concerning a broad range of environmental changes affecting subsistence practices in these communities. These observations of environmental changes are not experienced in isolation but within the context of accompanying social changes that are continually reshaping rural Alaskan communities and subsistence economies. In this paper we reflect on our research approach combining multiple methods of inquiry. Participant observation and semidirected interviews provided the conceptual framework for broadening our focus from climate and environmental change to community residents’ understanding of climate change in the context of their holistic human-environment worldview. Cultural consensus analysis allowed us to assess the extent to which perceptions of change are shared among hunters and fishers within and between villages and regions and to identify those phenomena occurring or experienced at smaller scales. Reflecting on this multimethods approach, we highlight important questions that have emerged about how we understand, synthesize, and represent local knowledge, especially as it is used in regulatory or management arenas.

Changing Daily Wind Speeds on Alaska’s North Slope: Implications for Rural Hunting Opportunities

Because of their reliance on the harvest of fish and game, Alaskan rural communities have experienced a variety of impacts from climate change, the effects of which are amplified at high latitudes. We collaborated with hunters from the coastal community of Wainwright, Alaska, to document their observations of environmental change (e.g., sea ice, wind, temperature) and the implications of those changes for opportunities to hunt bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) during spring and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) during summer. We integrated hunter observations on wind with statistical analysis of daily wind speed data collected in the nearby community of Barrow, Alaska, between 1971 and 2010 to characterize changes in the number of days with suitable hunting conditions. Hunters in Wainwright currently observe fewer days than in previous decades with wind conditions suitable for safely hunting bowhead whales and caribou. The statistical analysis of wind speed data supported these conclusions and suggested that the annual windows of opportunity for hunting each species have decreased by up to seven days since 1971. This study demonstrates the potential power of collaboration between local communities and researchers to characterize the societal impacts of climate change. Continued collaborative research with residents of rural northern Alaskan communities could produce knowledge and develop tools to help rural Alaskans adapt to novel social-ecological conditions.

Sources and perceptions of indoor and ambient air pollution in rural Alaska.

Even though Alaska is the largest state in the United States, much of the population resides in rural and underserved areas with documented disparities in respiratory health. This is especially true in the Yukon-Kuskokwim (southwest) and Ahtna (southcentral) Regions of Alaska. In working with community members, the goal of this study was to identify the air pollution issues (both indoors and outdoors) of concern within these two regions. Over a two-year period, 328 air quality surveys were disseminated within seven communities in rural Alaska. The surveys focused on understanding the demographics, home heating practices, indoor activities, community/outdoor activities, and air quality perceptions within each community. Results from these surveys showed that there is elevated potential for PM10/PM2.5 exposures in rural Alaska communities. Top indoor air quality concerns included mold, lack of ventilation or fresh air, and dust. Top outdoor air pollution concerns identified were open burning/smoke, road dust, and vehicle exhaust (e.g., snow machines, ATVs, etc.). These data can now be used to seek additional funding for interventions, implementing long-term, sustainable solutions to the identified problems. Further research is needed to assess exposures to PM10/PM2.5 and the associated impacts on respiratory health, particularly among susceptible populations such as young children.

Meeting Indigenous Subsistence Needs: The Case for Prey Switching in Rural Alaska

Identifying coping strategies that Alaskan subsistence hunters use while responding to adverse conditions provides insights into their capacity to sustain traditional livelihoods. Previous qualitative research has suggested that subsistence hunters switch prey to cope with fluctuations in the availability of subsistence resources. We developed and quantitatively tested a predictive framework assessing whether 19 rural Alaskan communities used this strategy. We found, between 1993 and 2004, these communities rarely substituted one resource for another. Our lack of evidence for prey switching may reflect other complicating factors such as greater availability of groceries and increased formal employment opportunities. These results highlight the need for improved data collection on harvests, hunter effort, and socioeconomic characteristics to inform comprehensive models. Our findings characterize subsistence hunting systems in rural Alaska, providing regulatory agencies with a greater understanding of the systems they manage. This may facilitate more flexible management that balances conservation concerns with rural livelihoods.

Traditional living and cultural ways as protective factors against suicide: perceptions of Alaska Native university students

IntroductionNative peoples living in Alaska have one of the highest rates of suicide in the world. This represents a significant health disparity for indigenous populations living in Alaska. This research was part of a larger study that explored qualitatively the perceptions of Alaska Native university students from rural communities regarding suicide. This analysis explored the resilience that arose from participants’ experiences of traditional ways, including subsistence activities. Previous research has indicated the importance of traditional ways in preventing suicide and strengthening communities.MethodSemi-structured interviews were conducted with 25 university students who had migrated to Fairbanks, Alaska, from rural Alaskan communities. An interview protocol was developed in collaboration with cultural and community advisors. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. Participants were asked specific questions concerning the strengthening of traditional practices towards the prevention of suicide. Transcripts were analysed using the techniques of grounded theory.FindingsParticipants identified several resilience factors against suicide, including traditional practices and subsistence activities, meaningful community involvement and an active lifestyle. Traditional practices and subsistence activities were perceived to create the context for important relationships, promote healthy living to prevent suicide, contrast with current challenges and transmit important cultural values. Participants considered the strengthening of these traditional ways as important in suicide prevention efforts. However, subsistence and traditional practices were viewed as a diminishing aspect of daily living in rural Alaska.ConclusionsMany college students from rural Alaska have been affected by suicide but are strong enough to cope with such tragic events. Subsistence living and traditional practices were perceived as important social and cultural processes with meaningful lifelong benefits for participants. Future research should continue to explore the ways in which traditional practices can contribute towards suicide prevention, as well as the far-reaching benefits of subsistence living.

Renewable energy and sustainable communities: Alaska's wind generator experience†

BackgroundIn 1984, the Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development (DCED) issued the State's first inventory/economic assessment of wind generators, documenting installed wind generator capacity and the economics of replacing diesel-fuel-generated electricity. Alaska's wind generation capacity had grown from hundreds of installed kilowatts to over 15.3 megawatts (MW) by January 2012.MethodThis article reviews data and conclusions presented in “Alaska's Wind Energy Systems; Inventory and Economic Assessment” (1). (Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development, S. Konkel, 1984). It provides a foundation and baseline for understanding the development of this renewable energy source.ResultsToday's technologies have evolved at an astonishing pace; a typical generator in an Alaska wind farm now is likely rated at 1.5-MW capacity, compared to the single-kilowatt (kW) machines present in 1984. Installed capacity has mushroomed, illustrated by Unalakleet's 600-kW wind farm dwarfing the original three 10-kW machines included in the 1984 inventory. Kodiak Electric had three 1.5-MW turbines installed at Pillar Mountain in 2009, with three additional turbines of 4.5-MW capacity installed in 2012. Utilities now actively plan for wind generation and compete for state funding.DiscussionState of Alaska energy policy provides the context for energy project decision-making. Substantial renewable energy fund (REF) awards – $202,000,000 to date for 227 REF projects in the first 5 cycles of funding – along with numerous energy conservation programs – are now in place. Increasing investment in wind is driven by multiple factors. Stakeholders have interests both in public policy and meeting private investment objectives. Wind generator investors should consider project economics and potential impacts of energy decisions on human health. Specifically this article considers:changing environmental conditions in remote Alaska villages,impacts associated with climate change on human health,progress in better understanding wind energy potential through resource assessments and new tools for detailed feasibility and project planning,need for comprehensive monitoring and data analysis, andstate funding requirements and opportunity costs.ConclusionThe energy policy choices ahead for Alaska will have important implications for Arctic population health, especially for those villages whose relatively small size and remote locations make energy a key component of subsistence lifestyles and community sustainability. Wind generation can contribute to meeting renewable energy goals and is a particularly important resource for rural and remote Alaskan communities currently dependent on diesel fuel for generating electricity and heat.

The benefits of discussing suicide with Alaska native college students: Qualitative analysis of in-depth interviews.

Suicide represents a significant health disparity for communities in rural Alaska, and has implications for mental health among people who have lost loved ones from suicide. A qualitative interview study was conducted to examine the ways in which suicide has affected the lives of college students who have migrated from rural villages to an urban university (N = 25). The present research represents a secondary aim of the study-specifically, we examined the affective responses of Alaska Native college students from rural villages after completing in-depth semistructured interviews about their experiences related to suicide. Debriefing questions posed at the conclusion of the interviews revealed that the majority of participants (n 16) stated they felt "better" after completing the interview, and no participants reported feeling "worse." No participant required the use of the safety plan developed in case of severe emotional distress. All participants indicated they would be interested in participating in future research. Analysis of questions pertaining to the interview experience revealed the salience of foundation (the participant's prior experience discussing issues like suicide), process (the interview questions and questioning style), and outcomes (the challenges and benefits of participation described by the respondent). Findings provided important insights concerning the experience of discussing past trauma, perceived importance of research addressing coping with suicide, and the influence of past experiences in the process of talking about suicide.

Culture and change: learning from the past through Community Archaeology on the North Slope

The Nuvuk Archaeology Project has provided opportunities for North Alaskan high school students to participate in an archaeological project at Nuvuk, Point Barrow, Alaska. The project has been successful scientifically, shedding light on the questions of the thousand-year-old Thule origins and migration, and extending the known distribution of the older Ipiutak culture by 500 km north. It has been equally successful in terms of student engagement and education. Students have learned about doing science (particularly archaeology) and about heritage site stewardship. Students have gone on to college intending to pursue degrees in anthropology/archaeology. The excitement of participating in a real research project, where new information is being learned, seems to play an important part in their decisions. Nonlocal students have learned about a rural Alaskan community and about doing community-based research. We have expanded the ways we do public outreach, moving beyond traditional public talks and school visits to print and broadcast media. We participate in Web-focused Arctic science outreach programs, a Facebook group, Twitter, and a blog. We will have project web pages tied to various education portals. The digital media prove to be particularly useful in reaching our local Arctic community.

Demographic and contextual factors associated with inhalant use among youth in rural Alaska

Background: Abuse of harmful legal products that can be inhaled or ingested is a serious and growing problem in many rural Alaskan communities, and particularly so among preteens.Methods: This study analyses data collected during baseline measurements of a 5-year NIH/NIDA-funded study entitled A Community Trial to Prevent Youth's Abuse of Harmful Legal Products in Alaska. Youth in 8 communities located throughout the state participated in a survey during the fall of 2009 to measure the prevalence and availability of harmful legal products (n=697). The goal of the analysis presented here is to compare the contextual factors of inhalant users and non-users in rural Alaskan communities.Results: As reported in national surveys of substance use among youth, participants in this study indicated using alcohol more than any other substance. Inhalants were the second-most common substance abused, higher than either cigarettes or marijuana. Lifetime use varied among demographic factors such as age, gender and ethnicity as well as contextual factors including academic performance, parent employment, household living situation and income. When compared to non-users, significantly larger proportions of participants reporting lifetime inhalant use indicated easy availability of inhalants in their home, school and retail outlets. Users were also significantly more likely than non-users to have consumed alcohol.Conclusion: Results of this study may inform the development of effective interventions in other rural communities.