Common Pasture Research Articles

Comparison of New Zealand perennial clovers for resilience against common pasture pests

Clovers (Trifolium spp.) are vulnerable to a large number of invertebrate pests so pest resilience amongst 19 leading commercial or near release New Zealand-bred clover cultivars was compared. Laboratory feeding choice tests comparing foliage from the test clovers against Grasslands Kopu II as the standard confirmed that red clovers (T. pratense) were less preferred than white clovers (T. repens) by adult clover root weevil and clover flea. Grey field slug showed no preference between red and white clovers, with the white clover Grassland Prestige performing the best. Porina larvae had lowest weight gains on strawberry clover (T. fragiferum). Subsequent tests using neonate greenheaded leafroller larvae and an artificial diet made with freeze-dried foliage from cultivars in the most and least preferred subgroups indicated antifeedant compounds, rather than leaf morphology, are likely responsible for differences in feeding preferences between red and white clovers.

An appraisal of area possessed under forage and pastures by dairy and non dairy farmers in district Mandi, Himachal Pradesh

The study was undertaken in three blocks of district Mandi and data were collected about the level of knowledge among dairy and non dairy farmers in district Mandi of Himachal Pradesh. The study reported that the highest average area under cultivated fodder found in Maize crop (0.44ha) followed by Oats (0.25ha), Sorghum (0.16ha) and Berseem (0.15ha) while per non dairy farmer the highest area (0.16ha.) recorded under Maize followed by (0.13ha) Oats, Berseem (0.11ha) and (0.08ha) under Sorghum. As the area possessed under pastures the dairy farmers noticed highest area (0.96ha.) under common pastures followed by (0.68ha) family pasture and (0.24ha). Under hortipastures while in case of per non dairy farmers the highest area (0.93ha) was found under family pasture followed by (0.91ha) common pasture and 0.36ha in hortipasture. As regards to percent area per dairy and non dairy farmers is concerned; the dairy farmers possess more area (14.17%) compared with non dairy farmers (8.43%) in forage crops while non dairy farmer possess more area (34.42%) in pasture compared to dairy farmers (26.65% area). The reasons possessing more area by non dairy farmers under pasture that the maintenance and quality of pastures was not found proper and not getting sufficient fodder out of such pastures.

Residual effect of pig slurry on common carpet grass pasture

ABSTRACT This study investigated the residual effects of pig slurry (PS) applied to common carpet grass pasture (Axonopus affinis) for two years (September 2008-March 2010) on dry matter yield and forage-nitrogen uptake from October 2010-May 2011. A field experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The treatments were 102, 204, 306, 408, and 510 m3 ha-1 pig slurry applied for two years; one mineral nitrogen rate (1,250 kg ha-1 ammonium nitrate) for two years; and no nitrogen fertilization (control). The pasture was cut at intervals of 48, 34, 43 and 69 days, which corresponded to 266, 300, 343, and 412 days after the last fertilizer application, respectively. Dry matter yield increased by 398 kg ha-1 for each 100 m3 of PS applied, the equivalent of 317 and 564 kg ha-1 for each 100 kg ha-1 of inorganic and organic N applied, respectively. The residual effect of PS on dry matter yield and forage-nitrogen uptake ranged from 11-45% and 8-40%, respectively, indicating a gradual release and availability of N in PS, which can help reduce the amounts of nitrogen applied to pasture.

Photo-protective mechanisms in reed canary grass to alleviate photo-inhibition of PSII on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Due to its characteristic of high biomass yield potential, there is considerable interest in cultivating Phalaris arundinacea L. cv. ‘chuancaoyin No.3' (reed canary grass) on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau where there is an abundance of alpine steppe meadow and a potential large market for animal husbandry. In this study, we 1) investigate whether reed canary grass exhibits superior productive capacity to Elymus nutans ‘Aba' (E. nutans), ordinary common pasture, during the long warm days of summer at high-altitude; and 2) compare the cold tolerance between reed canary grass and E. nutans, including photosynthesis, photo-inhibition, and photo-protection. The results suggest that reed canary grass exhibits higher photosynthetic capacity compared to E. nutans at latitudes of the cool temperate zone. Meanwhile, cold-induced photo-inhibition and photo-damage at high altitudes in reed canary grass were due to both stomatal and non-stomatal limitation, and the enhancement in photo-respiration, thermal dissipation, and Mehler reaction are important processes to minimize the negative effects of high elevation and a cold environment.

An oscillating tragedy of the commons in replicator dynamics with game-environment feedback

A tragedy of the commons occurs when individuals take actions to maximize their payoffs even as their combined payoff is less than the global maximum had the players coordinated. The originating example is that of overgrazing of common pasture lands. In game-theoretic treatments of this example, there is rarely consideration of how individual behavior subsequently modifies the commons and associated payoffs. Here, we generalize evolutionary game theory by proposing a class of replicator dynamics with feedback-evolving games in which environment-dependent payoffs and strategies coevolve. We initially apply our formulation to a system in which the payoffs favor unilateral defection and cooperation, given replete and depleted environments, respectively. Using this approach, we identify and characterize a class of dynamics: an oscillatory tragedy of the commons in which the system cycles between deplete and replete environmental states and cooperation and defection behavior states. We generalize the approach to consider outcomes given all possible rational choices of individual behavior in the depleted state when defection is favored in the replete state. In so doing, we find that incentivizing cooperation when others defect in the depleted state is necessary to avert the tragedy of the commons. In closing, we propose directions for the study of control and influence in games in which individual actions exert a substantive effect on the environmental state.

The effects of late gestation maternal nutrient restriction with or without protein supplementation on endocrine regulation of newborn and postnatal beef calves

A study was conducted to evaluate late gestation maternal nutrient restriction (NR) with or without protein supplementation on endocrine regulation in newborn beef calves. This study used multiparous cows (4 and 5 years of age, n = 57) randomly assigned to one of three treatments for the last 100 days of gestation. The control (Con; n = 19) cows were fed to increase body condition score, whereas the NR (n = 19) and NR with protein supplement (NRS, n = 19) cows were fed to lose 1.2 ± 0.2 body condition score units during the last 100 days of gestation. Control cows were allowed ad libitum access to tall fescue/crabgrass paddock and, when grazing became insufficient, ad libitum hay was provided along with 1.3 kg of corn gluten feed 5 days/wk. Tall fescue paddocks were strip grazed to limit forage availability for NR and NRS. The NRS-treated dams were individually penned and fed 0.45 kg of soybean meal 3 days/wk. As forage became limited, the nutrient-restricted paddocks received limited fescue hay. After parturition cow/calf pairs were moved to a common pasture and received ad libitum silage and high-concentrate feed. Maternal NR regardless of supplementation reduced cow plasma glucose and insulin concentrations during late gestation (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.0051, respectively). Calves from NR dams weighed less at birth than Con calves (P = 0.04), whereas NRS calves were intermediate (33.4 ± 1.2, 35.0 ± 1.3, and 37.2 ± 1.3 kg NR, NRS, and Con, respectively). Plasma glucose concentrations of unsuckled calves at birth were reduced (P = 0.037) in NR and NRS calves compared with Con (67.7 ± 6.5 and 60.1 ± 6.9 vs. 83.7 ± 6.1 mg/dL, respectively). At birth, Con and NRS calves had increased (P = 0.0037) plasma leptin concentrations compared with NR calves, whereas calf plasma cortisol concentrations were greater for the nutrient-restricted groups than the Con group (treatment × day P = 0.0135). Plasma IgG concentrations from calves at 5 days of age were similar (P = 0.701) between maternal late gestation treatments. This research reports that late gestation NR reduces postnatal calf birth weight, plasma glucose and leads to reduced plasma leptin. Maternal protein supplementation appears to partially alleviate the effects of late gestation NR on reducing plasma leptin, birth weight, and growth rate from Day 30 of age to weaning.

Value of copper, zinc, and oxidized charcoal for increasing forage efficiency of urea N uptake

Volatilization losses reduce the efficiency of surface-applied urea for crop N uptake, and can be controlled using urease inhibitors to retard hydrolysis or by the presence of other amendments that enhance retention of NH4+ formed by urea hydrolysis. A greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of oxidized charcoal (OCh; 150gkg−1 fertilizer) applied with or without Cu and/or Zn (∼0.5–2gkg−1 fertilizer), and of Cu and/or Zn applied without OCh, for increasing uptake of urea 15N by a common tropical pasture grass, capim-Mombaça (Panicum maximum Jacq. Cv. Mombaça), grown on a coarse-textured Oxisol. Cuttings were collected 5, 14, 28, 42, and 56days after surface placement of amended or unamended urea pellets to estimate dry matter production, total N uptake, and 15N recovery. Soil sampling was carried out in conjunction with the first and fourth cuts to evaluate exchangeable NH4+ and NO3− concentrations. At the concentrations studied, OCh was more effective than Cu and/or Zn for prolonging NH4+-N availability in urea-treated soil; however, OCh alone or in combination with Zn and Cu had no effect on biomass production or N recovery and can safely be eliminated as a useful option for pasture improvement. The most promising amendment was Zn, which significantly increased total N uptake and the efficiency of urea N fertilization. The use of Zn in conjunction with urea has practical potential to improve forage production on tropical soils.

Эпидемиологическая обстановка по бруцеллезу в РСО -Алания в 2005–2014 гг.

The analysis of the dynamics of human brucellosis incidence in North Ossetia-Alania was presented and the evaluation of epizootic and epidemiological situation for years of 2005–2014 was given when 101 cases of newly diagnosed brucellosis were registered. The contamination of people occurs by eating contaminated brucella meat and dairy products, also by taking care of sick farm animals, by participating in hunting companies. The main reasons of the emergence and spread of brucellosis infection in animals are: the unauthorized acquisition and importation of animals; untimely discovery of sick animals and their insulation; the joint use of common pasture and watering places animals from favourable and unfavourable households on brucellosis.

Simulated impacts of weather variability on seasonally moving pastoral livestock in northern Senegal

Households in the arid or semi-arid regions often practice transhumance, which means that the household or part of it moves seasonally with animals from a common pasture to another. Semi-arid regions in the Sahel have faced increasing environmental pressure due to population growth and decreasing rainfall. In northern Senegal this has changed the pattern of movement and stocking densities in the area. Pastoral livestock which utilizes common rangeland is heavily exposed to weather variability. The goal of this paper is to examine how potential changes in weather variability and rainfall could affect the decisions to move animals in an extensive pastoral livestock system across two regions. Building on earlier research we develop a stochastic dynamic programming model that describes extensive, common-pasture-based livestock under stochastic and spatially varying weather. We extend previous research by allowing animal’s movements between two regions and take into account that decisions can be adjusted when new information about the weather arrives. Decision rules to sell and move animals under exogenous price, market and climate scenarios are investigated. The results show that in the absence of efficient feed markets and under unpredictable weather, transhumance can be a rational livestock management strategy. Weather has an important role in the herder’s decision-making especially in years when the rainfall turns out to be below that of an average year. By contrast, economic variables play an important role when rainfall is not limiting herd sales decisions. Increased frequency of extreme weather conditions, such as heavy drought or rainfall, may have more severe impacts on livestock husbandry than gradual changes in the mean annual rainfall or temperature suggest. Hence, policies should aim at mitigating the negative consequences of extreme weather

Culture and identity in the early medieval fenland landscape

ABSTRACTThe fen-basin is located in a region in which material culture had become largely Germanic by the mid-fifth century. This paper evaluates the contribution made to an understanding of that process of cultural change by place-names, archaeology and documentary records. Archaeological evidence indicates little post-Roman abandonment of the fenland; the region continued to be inhabited and exploited. Patterns of intercommoning, the Tribal Hidage, and stray pieces of information recorded by Bede and Felix, demonstrate the presence of territorial groups across the whole basin by the mid-seventh century in a complex, almost certainly dynamic, hierarchy of subordinate and dominant polities, principalities and kingdoms, some with some Brittonic territorial names and others with names based on Old English elements. Most of the people who gave these place-names were likely to have been descended from the Romano-British and prehistoric inhabitants of Britain. Different cultural traditions cannot be identified in their material culture, and many may have been bilingual. Such commonalities, together with continuity across the region in structures governing rights of common pasture, suggest that it is as likely that some sub-Roman polities evolved into sub-kingdoms as it is that other polities were created anew. There is nothing so out of the ordinary in such political changes that they might be ascribed to the influence of incomers. The influence of migration on the evolution of early medieval fenland culture remains enigmatic.

A novel method to determine trimethylantimony concentrations in plant tissue

Environmental contextAntimony enters the soil mostly through mining and shooting activities and can thereafter be taken up by plants. In the soil, antimony may undergo several transformations such as biomethylation, leading to the formation of trimethylantimony. Here, we measured for the first time the uptake and translocation of trimethylantimony in a plant using a new extraction and analysis method. AbstractAntimony (Sb) is a relevant pollutant that can be found in elevated concentrations in soils near Sb mines and at shooting ranges. In soils, Sb occurs as trivalent Sb, SbIII, pentavalent Sb, SbV, or trimethylantimony, TMSb ((CH3)3SbO), the latter being the result of microbial biomethylation. It is important to understand the transfer of Sb species from soil to plants to assess the role of Sb in the food chain. However, this research has historically been hampered by the lack of suitable extraction and analytical methods. In this study, we validated an efficient and reliable extraction technique using oxalic acid and ascorbic acid (72.6±1.3% of Sb extracted) as well as a high-pressure liquid chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS) speciation analysis method to assess the uptake of TMSb in ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), a common pasture plant, in a hydroponics experiment. Our results show that TMSb and SbIII are not converted to other species during extraction and that TMSb is taken up by ryegrass roots and translocated to the shoots. Our study also points at specific methylation–demethylation mechanisms occurring in the plant. Moreover, an unknown Sb species was found in the shoots of TMSb-treated plants, highlighting the need for further research. These new extraction and speciation methods will enable researchers to study the soil–plant transfer of organo-Sb compounds in a reliable and consistent manner.

Characterizing Forms, Solubility, Bioavailabilities, and Mineralization Rates of Phosphorous in Biosolids, Commercial Fertilizers, and Manures (Phase I)

Laboratory and greenhouse studies were conducted to characterize P forms, solubilities, and bioavailabilities in 12 biosolids, 3 animal manures, and a commercial fertilizer (TSP). The biosolids represented a variety of treatment and stabilization methods. Manures included dairy, poultry, and poultry litter. Two acid Florida sand soils of low and moderate P-sorbing capacities, and both deficient in available P, were used as growth media for a common pasture grass (bahiagrass). Amendments were applied at total P rates to meet the P needs (low P-rate) or the N needs (high P-rate) of bahiagrass. Grass was grown from seed in greenhouse columns that allowed both relative P-source bioavailability and leachability to be evaluated. Inorganic P forms dominated all P-sources (∼ 80% of total P), including biosolids produced in the biological phosphorus removal (BPR) processes. Inorganic P was primarily in Fe- and Al-associated forms, except in two biosolids products, manures, and TSP, where Ca- and Mg-associated forms dominated. Following reaction with soil, P was primarily associated with Fe- and Al-P forms regardless of initial P-source. Above ground plant uptake of P served as the measure of P bioavailability, and was linearly regressed against applied (total) P-rate. Relative P bioavailability was determined by statistically comparing regression slopes of the organic sources of P to the slope for TSP. Phosphorous sources tended to segregate into three categories of similar bioavailability: ‘high’, ‘moderate’, and ‘low’. Biosolids produced via BPR tended to be as available as fertilizer-P, and constituted the members of the ‘high’ bioavailability group. The ‘moderate’ bioavailability category included most of the biosolids tested (representing most biosolids produced nationally), and had an average relative bioavailability of 46%. The ‘low’ bioavailability category included biosolids and manures with greater than normal total Fe and Al (e.g. > ∼30-40 g kg-1), or whose form (pellets) or associated salinity and/or alkalinity likely confounded bioavailability interpretation. Leached P was dominantly inorganic, and was much less from most biosolids than from TSP. In the poorly P-sorbing Immokalee soil, two BPR materials lost from 0.73 to 11% of the total P applied (value depended on rate and form), but no other biosolids lost > 0.42% of the applied P. About 20% of the TSP-P (high rate) was lost from this soil. In the moderate P-sorbing Candler soil, P leaching losses were much less: leaching losses of TSP varied from 1.7 to 21.7% (low and high P-rate, respectively), and no biosolids (including the BPR materials) lost > 0.45%. Apparently, differences in biosolids P leachability are effectively masked by soils with even moderate P-retention capacity. Manure-P was generally more leachable (= 4.3% lost) than biosolids-P (except the BPR materials), but significant differences were limited to the high-P rate on the Immokalee soil. No manure lost > 0.87% of applied P in the Candler soil. Biosolids-P leaching in the Immokalee soil was related to the P saturation index (PSI = [Pox] / [Alox + Feox]) of the biosolids. For biosolids with PSI = 1.25, no appreciable leaching occurred. Only BPR biosolids (PSI = 1.3 - 2.7) resulted in significant P leaching. Co-applying water treatment residuals (WTRs) with high soluble P sources can effectively eliminate leaching in soils where drainage P is a justifiable concern. Greenhouse data need validation under field conditions, but limiting biosolids applications to rates based on P crop needs appears unnecessary to minimize P leaching concerns except for BPR materials on the poorest of P-retaining soils This title belongs to WERF Research Report Series ISBN: 9781780403106 (eBook) ISBN: 9781843396581 (Print)

Modeling and assessing scenarios of common property pastures management in Switzerland

Common property pastures (CPPs) in the Alps served as examples for successful self-governed resource use. During the past few decades, the situation has changed, and abandonment of marginal pastures with subsequent forest regrowth has been widely observed. To better understand current drivers, challenges, and policy impacts on the sustainable governance of common property pastures, we present an application of Ostroms' general framework for analyzing social–ecological systems (SESs). We use system dynamics (SD) modeling to operationalize the SES framework for the case study region of Grindelwald, Switzerland. Based on formative scenario analysis, we identify four consistent simulation scenarios. The simulation results show that increasing loss of common property pastures and resulting afforestation can be expected. Scenario assessment shows that policy blueprints such as liberalization or increased government support do not halt but instead accelerate abandonment of common property pastures. We conclude by discussing options for sustainably governing CPPs.

Different patterns in species richness and community composition between trees, plants and epiphytic lichens in semi-natural pastures under agri-environment schemes

Agri-environment schemes (AES) have been established to counteract negative effects of agricultural intensification on e.g. semi-natural pastures and meadows. The efficiency of most AESs have, however, been poorly evaluated. We evaluated the success of a Swedish AES for the management of semi-natural pastures by comparing species richness and composition of vascular plants (except trees), epiphytic lichens and trees among pastures receiving higher (high value pastures) and lower levels of AES paymens (general value pastures). There was no difference in the number of tree species among high and general value pastures, even though AES regulations allow a maximum of 60 and 100 trees/ha in general and high value pastures, respectively. High value pastures had, however, a higher number of plant and epiphytic lichen species than common value pastures. Moreover, a higher number of pasture specialist plant species were indicative of high value pastures than of general value pastures. No lichen species indicating high value pastures are associated with habitats with low canopy cover (such as e.g. pastures). Finally, tree identity was an important factor for explaining the number and composition of epiphytic lichen species. Our study highlights that species groups can respond differently to agri-environment schemes and other conservation measures. Even though the effects are the desired on the diversity of one assessed taxon, this is not always the case for non-target organism groups.

The Tragedy of the Vital Commons

The concept of the Tragedy of the Commons is well known, but it does not adequately capture the gravity of harm caused by the mismanagement of certain common pool resources (CPR). Not all commons are created equal; some are more important than others. If the common pasture where cows graze is overused and rendered barren, the community shifts to a vegan diet. But, if the groundwater aquifer used to grow soybeans and other foods is exhausted and no water remains for extraction, then individuals, families, and entire communities perish. Present commons scholarship is unable to differentiate between varying levels of importance among commons resources. I correct that problem by introducing the model of the Vital Commons. This is a type of CPR that is both vital to human existence and supports a massive population. The Earth’s atmosphere. Groundwater aquifer depletion. These are two examples of Vital Commons. Overuse of either creates a tragedy — but it appears like an apocalypse. The traditional response to tragic overuse of a commons is the creation of private property. Using this technique with a Vital Commons, however, makes things far worse and only expedites the coming catastrophe. Informal norms or principles of private ordering are also completely ineffective at sustaining the long-term health of a Vital Commons. Instead, the only answer to the tragedy of the Vital Commons is the wholesale removal of property rights to this essential and depleted resource.

An Alternative Rangeland Management Strategy in an Agro-Pastoral Area in Western China

Governance plays a key role in rangeland management. In China, all rangeland, including pastoral land and agro-pastoral land, is owned by the State. Since 1980, use rights have been granted to households by the Chinese government extending the household contract responsibility system (HCRS). But in the agro-pastoral areas of northwestern (NW) China, the rangeland degradation is more severe than that in pastoral areas. The HCRS is difficult to implement because the limited and fragmented grazing land cannot be contracted to individual households. Thus the pastures in the agro-pastoral areas are grazed as communal pastoral land and the rate of rangeland degradation has accelerated as livestock numbers have grown. Several measures have been introduced in an attempt to reverse this degradation trend, but most failed. This paper reports a 5-year comparison of three rangeland management regimens, including the national “Protecting rangeland by restricting grazing” (PRRG) project under the individual HCRS (PRRG under IHCRS), the Allied Householders Contract Responsibility System (AHCRS) program funded by the World Bank/GEF, and the free grazing on common pasture as the control area (CA) at Mayinggou Village, Yongchang County, Gansu Province in NW China. The results showed significant differences (P < 0.05) between AHCRS and the other two regimens (PRRG under IHCRS and CA) in terms of biomass of palatable forages, cover, and plant diversity index of vegetation but no significant difference (P > 0.05) between PRRG under IHCRS and CA. Reducing the number of livestock in AHCRS also resulted in increased revenue from the livestock turn-off rate compared with that in PRRG under IHCRS and CA. Therefore, AHCRS is a better alternative management regimen for rangelands in agro-pastoral areas. AHCRS can solve the overgrazing problem, maintain or improve household income, and potentially ensure a long-term sustainable rangeland management regimen in agro-pastoral areas in NW China.

Soil changes under different land-uses in the Cerrado of Mato Grosso, Brazil

This study aimed to (1) examine the effects of land-use change on the soils of natural Cerrado transformed to common croplands (soybean/cotton/maize rotation and sugarcane) and pasture and (2) indicate how agricultural production affects water quality across a meso-scale catchment. Land conversion caused significant reduction in infiltration rates near the soil surface (0–40cm depth) of pasture (−96%) and croplands (−90% to −93%). Soil aggregate stability was significantly lower in croplands than in Cerrado and pasture. Topsoil pH and nutrient concentrations were high in croplands and pasture. Soybean crops had extremely high extractable P concentrations (80mg·kg−1; 9 times greater than the natural background), whereas pasture N levels declined. Nutrient accumulation of N and P did not occur at deeper horizons for any land-use type. Snapshot water sampling showed strong seasonality in water quality parameters. Higher temperature, oxi-reduction potential (ORP), NO2−, and very low oxygen concentrations (<5mg·l−1) and saturation (<60%) were recorded during the rainy season. In contrast, remarkably high (up to 0.8mg·l−1) PO43− concentrations were measured during summer. Water quality parameters were affected by agricultural activities at all sampled sub-catchments across the meso-scale catchment, regardless of stream characteristics (stream order, percentage of riparian vegetation, sub-catchment size); thus, no spatial trends were observed. Direct NO3− leaching appeared to play a minor role; however, water quality is affected by agricultural non-point sources, due to topsoil fertiliser inputs affecting the entire catchment, from small low order streams to the larger rivers of the modified catchment. In conclusion, land-use conversion has degraded soil physical properties, leaving cropland soils more susceptible to surface erosion with potential lateral nutrient transport to the stream network.

Why do individuals behave differently in commons dilemmas? The case of alpine farmers using common property pastures in Grindelwald, Switzerland

The sustainable use of common-pool resources depends on users’ behaviour with regards to appropriation and provision. Most knowledge about behaviour in such situations comes from experimental research. As experiments take place in confined environments, motivational drivers and actions in the field might differ. This paper analyses farmers’ use of common property pastures in Grindelwald, Switzerland. Binary logistic regression is applied to survey data to explore the effect of farmers’ attributes on livestock endowment, appropriation and provision behaviour. Furthermore, Q methodology is used to assess the impact of broader contextual variables on the sustainability of common property pastures. It is shown that the strongest associations exist between (a) socio-economic attributes and change in livestock endowment; (b) norms and appropriation behaviour; and (c) area and pay-off and provision behaviour. Relevant contextual variables are the economic value of the resource units, off-farm income opportunities, and the subsidy structure. We conclude that with increasing farm size farmers reduce the use and maintenance of common property. Additionally, we postulate that readiness to maintain a resource increases with appropriation activities and the net returns generated from appropriation.

Why do individuals behave differently in commons dilemmas? The case of alpine farmers using common property pastures in Grindelwald, Switzerland

Why do individuals behave differently in commons dilemmas? The case of alpine farmers using common property pastures in Grindelwald, Switzerland

Aqueous and lipid nuclear magnetic resonance metabolomic profiles of the earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa show potential as an indicator species for environmental metabolomics.

The common pasture earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa has often been neglected in environmental metabolomics in favor of species easily bred in the laboratory. The present study assigns aqueous metabolites in A. caliginosa using high-resolution 1- and 2-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. In total, 51 aqueous metabolites were identified, including typical amino acids (alanine, leucine, asparagine, phenylalanine), sugars (maltose, glucose), the dominant earthworm-specific 2-hexyl-5-ethyl-furansulfonate, and several previously unreported metabolites (oxoglutarate, putrescine). Examining the lesser-known earthworm lipid metabolome showed various lipid fatty acyl chains, cholesterol, and phosphatidylcholine. To briefly test if the NMR metabolomic techniques could differentiate A. caliginosa from different sites, earthworms were collected from 2 adjacent farms. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis detected metabolomic differences, suggesting the worms from the 2 sites differed in their energy metabolism, as indicated by altered levels of alanine, glutamine, glutamate, malate, fumarate, and lipids. Evidence of greater utilization of lipid energy reserves and onset of protein catabolism was also present. While the precise cause of the metabolomic differences could not be determined, the results show the potential of this species for further environmental metabolomic studies.